View source for Philippines campaign (1941–1942)

{{Short description|Invasion of the Philippines by Japan during World War II}}
{{For|the Allied campaign against the Japanese in the Philippines of 1944–1945|Philippines campaign (1944–1945)}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict    = Battle of the Philippines
| image       = File:Photograph of American Prisoners Using Improvised Litters to Carry Comrades, 05-1942 - NARA - 535564.jpg
| image_size  = 300px
| caption     = A burial detail of American and Filipino prisoners of war uses improvised litters to carry fallen comrades at [[Camp O'Donnell]], Capas, Tarlac, 1942, following the [[Bataan Death March]].
| partof      = the [[Pacific Theater of World War II]]
| date        = [[Japanese invasion of Batan Island|December 8, 1941]] – [[Battle of Corregidor|May 8, 1942]]
| place       = [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]]
| result      = Japanese victory
| territory   = [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines]]
| map_type    =
| map_relief  =
| map_size    =
| map_marksize =
| map_caption =
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| combatant1  = {{flagcountry|Empire of Japan}}
| combatant2  = {{flag|United States|1912}}
* {{flag|Commonwealth of the Philippines|name=Philippine Commonwealth}}
| commander1  = {{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Masaharu Homma]]<br />{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|army}} [[Hideyoshi Obata]]<br />{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|naval}} [[Ibō Takahashi]]<br />{{flagdeco|Empire of Japan|naval}} [[Nishizō Tsukahara]]
| commander2  = {{flagdeco|USA|1912}} [[Douglas MacArthur]]<br />{{nowrap|{{flagdeco|USA|1912}} [[Jonathan M. Wainwright (general)|Jonathan Wainwright]]{{Surrendered}}}}<br />{{flagdeco|USA|1912}} [[George M. Parker (general)|George Parker]]{{Surrendered}}<br />{{flagdeco|Philippine Commonwealth}} [[Manuel L. Quezon]]<br />{{flagdeco|Philippine Commonwealth}} [[Basilio J. Valdes]]
| strength1   = 129,435 troops<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V1/Images/p_002.jpg Reports of General MacArthur] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120930001154/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V1/Images/p_002.jpg |date=September 30, 2012 }} Order of Battle plate. The total includes all elements of divisions assigned to the 14th Army at some point in the campaign, and replacements. The maximum strength of Japanese ground forces was approx. 100,000. The total does not include 12000+ Army air force personnel, whose totals were drastically reduced after January 1, 1942.</ref><br />90 tanks<br />541 aircraft
| strength2   = 151,000 troops<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_2.htm#p25 The Fall of the Philippines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217093142/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_2.htm#p25 |date=February 17, 2012 }} p. 18. The Philippine Army totalled 120,000 and the Army of the United States 31,000.</ref><br />108 [[M3 Stuart|tanks]]<ref name="The Fall of the Philippines">[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_3.htm#p32 ''The Fall of the Philippines''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216002431/https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_3.htm#p32 |date=December 16, 2019 }}, p. 33.</ref><br />277 aircraft<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_3.htm#p32 ''The Fall of the Philippines''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216002431/https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_3.htm#p32 |date=December 16, 2019 }}, p. 42. Total includes 175 fighters and 74 bombers.</ref>
| casualties1 = Japanese source:<ref>{{Cite book |title=[[Senshi Sōsho]] |date=1966 |publisher=Asagumo Shimbunsha |volume=2 |language=ja |script-title=ja:戦史叢書}}</ref><br />'''11,225'''
* 4,130 killed
* 287 missing
* 6,808 wounded
----
US estimate:<ref>{{cite book |date=October 3, 2003 |title=Philippine Islands |url=http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/pi/PI.htm |publisher=Center of Military History, U.S. Army |page=19 |quote=Since 6 January the Japanese had suffered 7,000 battle casualties, with another 10,000 to 12,000 men dying of disease. |access-date=February 19, 2009 |archive-date=May 23, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523005633/http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/pi/PI.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><br />'''17,000–19,000'''
* 7,000 killed or wounded
* 10,000–12,000 dead of disease
| casualties2 = '''146,000'''<ref>Life Magazine gives a total of 36,583 US/Filipino troops captured 9 April 1942 {{Cite magazine |date=July 6, 1942 |title="Missing in Action": With 66 Boys Lost on Bataan, the People of Harrodsburg, Ky. Pay Their Price for Freedom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=400EAAAAMBAJ |magazine=Life |page=15 |via=Google Books}}</ref>
* 25,000 killed
* 21,000 wounded
* 100,000 captured
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Philippines 1941–1942}}
{{Campaignbox Pacific 1941}}
{{Campaignbox South West Pacific}}
{{Campaignbox South West Pacific theatre}}
}}
The '''Philippines campaign''' ({{langx|fil|Kampanya sa Pilipinas}}, {{langx|es|Campaña en las Filipinas del Ejercito Japonés}}, {{langx|ja|フィリピンの戦い|Firipin no Tatakai}}), also known as the '''Battle of the Philippines''' ({{langx|fil|Labanan sa Pilipinas}}) or the '''Fall of the Philippines''', was the invasion of the American territory of the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Philippines]] by the [[Empire of Japan]] and the defense of the islands by [[United States]] and the Philippine Armies during [[World War II]].
The Japanese launched the invasion by sea from [[Taiwan under Japanese rule|Taiwan]], over {{Convert|200|mi|}} north of the Philippines, and from [[History of Palau#Japanese mandate|Palau]] to the east. The defending forces outnumbered the Japanese by a ratio of 3:2 but were a mixed force of non-combat-experienced regular, national guard, constabulary and newly created Commonwealth units. The Japanese used first-line troops at the outset of the campaign, and by concentrating their forces, they swiftly overran most of [[Luzon]] during the first month.
The Japanese high command, believing that they had won the campaign, made a strategic decision to advance by a month their timetable of [[Dutch East Indies campaign|operations in Borneo and Indonesia]] and to withdraw their best division and the bulk of their airpower in early January 1942.<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V2%20P1/ch6.htm#p103 ''Japanese Operations in the Southwest Pacific Area – Reports of General MacArthur Volume II] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523005338/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V2%20P1/ch6.htm#p103 |date=May 23, 2011 }}, p. 104.</ref> That, coupled with the defenders' decision to withdraw into a defensive holding position in the [[Bataan Peninsula]] and also the defeat of three Japanese battalions at the Battle of the Points and Battle of the Pockets, enabled the Americans and Filipinos to hold out for four more months. After the Japanese failure to penetrate the Bataan defensive perimeter in February, the Japanese conducted a 40-day siege. The crucial large natural harbor and port facilities of [[Manila Bay]] were denied to the Japanese until May 1942. While the Dutch East Indies operations were unaffected, this heavily hindered the Japanese offensive operations in [[New Guinea campaign|New Guinea]] and the [[Solomon Islands campaign|Solomon Islands]], buying time for the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] to make plans to engage the Japanese at [[Guadalcanal campaign|Guadalcanal]] instead of much further east.{{sfn|Morton|1960}}
Japan's conquest of the Philippines is often considered the worst military defeat in U.S. history.<ref>"War in the Pacific: The First Year", https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/npswapa/extContent/wapa/guides/first/sec2.htm. Retrieved May 4, 2016</ref> About 23,000 American military personnel and about 100,000 Filipino soldiers were killed or captured.<ref>"American Prisoners of War in the Philippines," Office of the Provost Marshal, November 19, 1945, http://www.mansell.com/pow_resources/camplists/philippines/pows_in_pi-OPMG_report.html. Retrieved May 4, 2016</ref>
==Background==
{{Further|Military history of the Philippines during World War II}}
===Japanese activity===
====Objectives====
The Japanese planned to occupy the Philippines as part of their plan for a "Greater East Asia War" in which their [[Southern Expeditionary Army Group]] seized sources of raw materials in [[British Malaya|Malaya]] and the [[Netherlands East Indies]] while the [[Combined Fleet]] neutralized the [[United States Pacific Fleet]]. Five years earlier, in 1936, Captain Ishikawa Shingo, a hard-liner in the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]], had toured the Philippines and other parts of the Southeast Asia, noting that these countries had raw materials Japan needed for its armed forces.{{sfn|Nish|2002|p=112}} This helped further increase their aspiration for colonizing the Philippines.
The Southern Expeditionary Army was created on 6 November 1941, commanded by General [[Hisaichi Terauchi]], who had previously been minister of war. It was ordered to prepare for war in the event that negotiations with the United States did not succeed in peacefully meeting Japanese objectives. They also included the condition of America's acceptance of their position in the Pacific as a superior force, with the testament of their occupation of China, but they did not get what they wanted.{{sfn|Nish|2002|p=162}} Under Terauchi's command were four corps-equivalent armies, comprising ten divisions and three combined arms brigades, including the [[Japanese Fourteenth Area Army]]. Operations against the Philippines and Malaya were to be conducted simultaneously when Imperial General Headquarters ordered.
The invasion of the Philippines had four objectives:<ref>{{cite book|last=Paine|first=Sarah|title=The Japanese Empire: Grand Strategy from the Meiji Restoration to the Pacific War|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|page=157}}</ref>{{sfn|Nish|2002|p=162}}
* To prevent the use of the Philippines as an advance base of operations by American forces
* To acquire staging areas and supply bases to enhance operations against the Dutch East Indies and [[Guam]]
* To secure the lines of communication between occupied areas in the south and the [[Japanese archipelago|Japanese Home Islands]]
* To limit the Allied intervention when they attempt to launch an offensive campaign in Australia and the [[Solomon Islands]] via dispatching all the forces stationed in the country and other neighboring nations
====Invasion forces====
[[File:Advance Japanese Landings Dec 1941.jpg|thumb|300 px|Advance Japanese landings in the Philippines 8–20 December 1941.]]
Terauchi assigned the Philippines invasion to the 14th Army, under the command of Lieutenant General [[Masaharu Homma]].<ref name="Chun">{{Cite book |last=Chun |first=Clayton K. S. |title=The Fall of the Philippines, 1941–42 |date=2012 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84908-609-7 |location=Oxford}}</ref>{{rp|14,20}} Air support of ground operations was provided by the 5th Air Group, under Lieutenant General [[Hideyoshi Obata]],<ref name=Chun/>{{rp|21}} which was transferred to Formosa from [[Manchuria]]. The amphibious invasion was conducted by the Philippines Force under Vice Admiral [[Ibō Takahashi]], using the [[Third Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)|Third Fleet]],<ref name=Chun/>{{rp|21}} supported by the land-based aircraft of 11th Air Fleet of Vice Admiral [[Nishizo Tsukahara]].
The 14th Army had two first-line infantry divisions, the [[16th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|16th]] (Susumu Morioka) and [[48th Division (Imperial Japanese Army)|48th Divisions]] ([[Yuitsu Tsuchihashi]]), to invade and conquer Luzon, and the [[65th Independent Mixed Brigade (Imperial Japanese Army)|65th Brigade]] as a garrison force.<ref name=Chun/>{{rp|21}} The Formosa-based 48th Division, although without combat experience, was considered one of the Japanese Army's best units, was specially trained in amphibious operations, and was given the assignment of the main landing in [[Lingayen Gulf]]. The 16th Division, assigned to land at [[Lamon Bay]], was picked as one of the best divisions still available in Japan and staged from the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryukyus]] and [[Palau]]. The 14th Army also had the 4th and 7th Tank Regiments,<ref name=Chun/>{{rp|24}} five [[field artillery]] battalions, five [[anti-aircraft artillery]] battalions, four antitank companies, and a mortar battalion. An unusually strong group of [[combat engineer]] and bridging units was included in the 14th Army's support forces.
For the invasion, the Third Fleet was augmented by two destroyer squadrons and a cruiser division of the [[2nd Fleet (Imperial Japanese Navy)|Second Fleet]], and the [[aircraft carrier]] ''[[Japanese aircraft carrier Ryūjō|Ryūjō]]'' from the [[1st Air Fleet]]. The Philippines Force consisted of an aircraft carrier, five [[heavy cruiser]]s, five [[light cruiser]]s, 29 [[destroyer]]s, two [[seaplane tender]]s, minesweepers and torpedo boats.<ref name=Chun/>{{rp|22}}
Combined army and navy air strength allocated to support the landings was 541 aircraft. The 11th Kōkūkantai (Air Fleet) consisted of the 21st and 23rd Kōkūsentai (Air Flotillas), a combined strength of 156 [[Mitsubishi G4M|G4M "Betty"]] and [[Mitsubishi G3M|G3M "Nell"]] bombers, 107 [[Mitsubishi A6M Zero|A6M Zero]] fighters, plus seaplanes and reconnaissance planes.<ref name=Chun/>{{rp|24}} Most of these were based at [[Kaohsiung|Takao]], and approximately a third were sent to Indochina in the last week of November to support operations in Malaya. The ''Ryujo'' provided an additional 16 fighters and 18 torpedo planes, and the surface ships had 68 seaplanes for search and observation, totaling 412 naval aircraft. The army's 5th Kikōshidan (Air Group) consisted of two fighter regiments, two light bomber regiments, and a heavy bomber regiment, totaling 192 aircraft: 76 [[Mitsubishi Ki-21|Ki-21 "Sally"]], [[Kawasaki Ki-48|Ki-48 "Lily"]], and [[Mitsubishi Ki-30|Ki-30 "Ann"]] bombers; 36 [[Nakajima Ki-27|Ki-27 "Nate"]] fighters, and 19 [[Mitsubishi Ki-15|Ki-15 "Babs"]] and [[Tachikawa Ki-36|Ki-36 "Ida"]] observation planes.<ref name=Chun/>{{rp|24}}
===Defenses===
[[File:US Army Far East December 1941.jpg|thumb|300 px|Disposition of United States Army forces in the Philippines in December 1941.]]
====United States Army Forces in the Far East====
From mid-1941, following increased tension between Japan and several other powers, including the United States, Britain and the Netherlands, many countries in [[Southeast Asia]] and the Pacific began to prepare for the possibility of war. By December 1941, the combined defense forces in the Philippines were organized into the [[United States Army Forces in the Far East]] (USAFFE), which included the [[Philippine Army]]'s 1st Regular Division, 2nd ([[Philippine Constabulary|Constabulary]]) Division, and 10 mobilized reserve [[division (military)|divisions]],<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_2.htm#p15 ''The Fall of the Philippines – U.S. Army in World War II''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217093142/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_2.htm#p15 |date=February 17, 2012 }}, pp. 26–27.</ref> and the [[United States Army]]'s [[Philippine Department]]. General [[Douglas MacArthur]] was recalled from retirement by the [[United States Department of War|War Department]] and named commander of USAFFE on 26 July 1941.<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_2.htm#p15 ''The Fall of the Philippines''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217093142/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_2.htm#p15 |date=February 17, 2012 }}, p. 18.</ref> MacArthur had retired in 1937 after two years as military advisor to the Philippine Commonwealth<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_2.htm#p15 ''The Fall of the Philippines''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217093142/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_2.htm#p15 |date=February 17, 2012 }}, p. 19.</ref> and accepted control of the Philippine Army, tasked by the Filipino government with reforming an army made up primarily of reservists lacking equipment, training and organization.
On 31 July 1941, the Philippine Department had 22,532 troops assigned, approximately half of them Filipino.<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_2.htm#p19 ''The Fall of the Philippines''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217093142/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_2.htm#p19 |date=February 17, 2012 }}, p. 24.</ref> MacArthur recommended the reassignment of department commander Major General [[George Grunert]] in October 1941 and took command himself.<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_2.htm#p15 ''The Fall of the Philippines''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217093142/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_2.htm#p15 |date=February 17, 2012 }}, p. 23.</ref> The main component of the department was the U.S. Army [[Philippine Division (United States)|Philippine Division]], a 10,500-man formation that consisted mostly of [[Philippine Scouts]] (PS) combat units.<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_2.htm#p21 ''The Fall of the Philippines''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217093142/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_2.htm#p21 |date=February 17, 2012 }}, p. 22.</ref> The Philippine Department had been reinforced between August and November 1941 by 8,500 troops of the [[United States Army Air Forces|U.S. Army Air Forces]], and by three [[National Guard (United States)|Army National Guard]] units, including its only armor, two [[battalion]]s of [[Stuart tank|M3 light tanks]].<ref name="The Fall of the Philippines"/> These units, the [[200th Coast Artillery (United States)|200th Coast Artillery Regiment]] (an antiaircraft unit), [[192nd Tank Battalion]], and [[194th Tank Battalion]], drew troops from [[New Mexico]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Illinois]], [[Ohio]], [[Kentucky]], [[Minnesota]], [[Missouri]], and [[California]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/pi/PI.htm|title=Philippine Islands|page= 5|access-date=February 19, 2009|archive-date=May 23, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523005633/http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/pi/PI.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://192nd.wikidot.com/origin-of-the-192nd-tank-battalion |title = Origin of the 192nd Tank Battalion|website =192nd Tank Battalion Wiki|first = Jim|last = Opolony|date = September 23, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Company C, 194th Tank Battalion in the Philippines, 1941–42 |url=http://www.militarymuseum.org/Bataan.html |website=militarymuseum.org}}</ref> After reinforcement, the department's strength was 31,095, including 11,988 Philippine Scouts.<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_3.htm#p32 ''The Fall of the Philippines''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216002431/https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_3.htm#p32 |date=December 16, 2019 }}, p. 49, incl. notes.</ref>
MacArthur organized USAFFE into four tactical commands.<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_4.htm#p61 ''The Fall of the Philippines''], pp. 68–69.</ref> The ''[[North Luzon Force]]'', under Maj. Gen. [[Jonathan M. Wainwright (general)|Jonathan M. Wainwright]], defended the most likely sites for amphibious attacks and the central plains of [[Luzon]]. Wainwright's forces included the PA [[11th Division (Philippines)|11th]], [[21st Division (Philippines)|21st]] and [[31st Division (Philippines)|31st Infantry Divisions]], the U.S. [[26th Cavalry Regiment (Philippine Scouts)|26th Cavalry Regiment]] (PS), a battalion of the [[45th Infantry Regiment (United States)|45th Infantry]] (PS), and the 1st Provisional Artillery Group of two batteries of 155&nbsp;mm guns and one 2.95&nbsp;inch (75&nbsp;mm) [[mountain gun]]. The Philippine [[71st Division (Philippines)|71st Infantry Division]] served as a reserve and could be committed only on the authority of MacArthur.<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_28.htm#p498 ''The Fall of the Philippines''], p. 499. The two divisions used as reserves, the 71st and 91st, were not from Luzon but from the Visayas, and each had only two regiments.</ref>
The [[South Luzon Force]], under Brigadier General [[George M. Parker (United States Army officer)|George M. Parker Jr.]], controlled a zone east and south of [[Manila]]. Parker had the PA [[41st Division (Philippines)|41st]] and [[51st Infantry Division (United States)|51st Infantry Division]]s and the 2nd Provisional Artillery Group of two batteries of the [[86th Field Artillery Regiment]] (PS).
The ''[[Visayas-Mindanao Force|Visayan–Mindanao Force]]'' under Brigadier General [[William F. Sharp]] comprised the PA [[61st Division (Philippines)|61st]], [[81st Division (Philippines)|81st]], and [[101st Division (Philippines)|101st Infantry Divisions]], reinforced after the start of the war by the newly inducted 73rd and 93rd Infantry Regiments. The 61st Division was located on [[Panay]], the 81st on [[Cebu]] and [[Negros Island|Negros]], and the 101st on [[Mindanao]]. In January a fourth division, the [[102nd Division (Philippines)|102nd]], was created on Mindanao from the field artillery regiments of the 61st and 81st Divisions acting as infantry (they had no artillery pieces), and the 103rd Infantry of the 101st Division. The 2nd Infantry of the Philippine Army's 1st Regular Division and the 2nd Battalion of the [[43d Infantry Regiment (United States)|U.S. 43rd Infantry (Philippine Scouts)]] were also made a part of the Mindanao Force.
USAFFE's ''Reserve Force'', under MacArthur's direct control, was composed of the Philippine Division, the [[91st Division (Philippines)|91st Division]] (PA), and headquarters units from the PA and Philippine Department, positioned just north of Manila. The 192nd and 194th Tank Battalions formed the separate Provisional Tank Group, also under MacArthur's direct command, at [[Clark Field]]/[[Fort Stotsenburg]], where they were positioned as a mobile defense against any attempt by airborne units to seize the field.
Four U.S. [[United States Army Coast Artillery Corps|Coast Artillery Corps]] regiments guarded the entrance to [[Manila Bay]], including [[Corregidor Island]]. Across a narrow 3&nbsp;kilometre (2&nbsp;mi) strait of water from Bataan on Corregidor was [[Fort Mills]], defended by batteries of the 59th and 60th Coast Artillery Regiments (the latter an anti-aircraft unit), and the 91st and 92nd Coast Artillery Regiments (Philippine Scouts) of the [[Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays]]. The 59th CA acted as a supervisory unit for the batteries of all units positioned on [[Fort Hughes|Forts Hughes]], [[Fort Drum (El Fraile Island)|Drum]], [[Fort Frank|Frank]], and [[Fort Wint|Wint]]. The majority of the forts had been built circa 1910–1915 and, except for Fort Drum and Battery Monja on Corregidor, were unprotected against air and high-angle artillery attack except by camouflage.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stanton |first=Shelby L. |title=Order of Battle, U.S. Army, World War II |date=1984 |publisher=Presidio Press |page=461}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cdsg.org/the-harbor-defenses-of-manila-and-subic-bays-the-philippines/|title=The Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays, the Philippines|date=May 24, 2016|website=Coast Defense Study Group}}</ref><ref>Berhow and McGovern, pp. 10–24</ref>
The USAFFE's aviation arm was the [[Far East Air Force (United States)|Far East Air Force]] (FEAF) of the U.S. Army Air Forces, commanded by Major General [[Lewis H. Brereton]]. Previously the Philippine Department Air Force and Air Force USAFFE, the air force was the largest USAAF combat air organization outside the United States. Its primary combat power consisted of 91 serviceable [[Curtiss P-40|P-40 Warhawk]] fighters and 34 [[Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress|B-17 Flying Fortress]] bombers. Tactically the FEAF was part of the Reserve Force, so that it fell under MacArthur's direct command.
As of 30 November 1941 the strength of U.S. Army troops in the Philippines, including Philippine units, was 31,095, consisting of 2,504 officers and 28,591 enlisted (16,643 Americans and 11,957 Philippine Scouts).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_3.htm#p49|title=Strength and Composition of U.S. Army Troops in Philippine Islands, 30 November 1941|access-date=June 23, 2008|archive-date=December 16, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216002431/https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_3.htm#p49|url-status=dead}}</ref>
====Mobilization====
MacArthur's mobilization plans called for induction of the ten reserve divisions between 1 September and 15 December 1941. The timetable was met on 1 September with the induction of one regiment per division but slowed as a lack of facilities and equipment hampered training. The second regiments of the divisions were not called up until 1 November, and the third regiments were not organized until after hostilities began. Training was also seriously inhibited by language difficulties between the American cadres and the Filipino troops, and by the many differing dialects (estimated at 70) of the numerous ethnic groups comprising the army. By the outbreak of war, only two-thirds of the army had been mobilized, but additions to the force continued with the induction of the Constabulary and a portion of the regular army, until a force of approximately 130,000 men was reached.
The most crucial equipment shortfalls were in rifles and divisional light artillery. MacArthur requested 84,500 [[M1 Garand]] rifles to replace the World War I [[M1917 Enfield]]s equipping the PA, of which there were adequate numbers, but the War Department denied the request because of production difficulties. The divisions had only 20% of their artillery requirements, and while plans had been approved to significantly reduce this gap, the arrangements came too late to be implemented before war isolated the Philippines.<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_3.htm#p32 ''The Fall of the Philippines''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216002431/https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_3.htm#p32 |date=December 16, 2019 }}, pp. 35–36.</ref>
By contrast, the Philippine Division was adequately manned, equipped, and trained. MacArthur received immediate approval to modernize it by reorganizing it as a mobile "triangular" division. Increasing the authorized size of the Philippine Scouts was not politically viable (because of resentments within the less-well-paid Philippine Army), so MacArthur's plan also provided for freeing up Philippine Scouts to round out other units. The transfer of the American [[34th Infantry Regiment (United States)|34th Infantry]] from the [[8th Infantry Division (United States)|8th Infantry Division]] in the United States to the Philippine Division, accompanied by two field artillery battalions to create a pair of complete [[regimental combat team]]s, was actually underway when war broke out. The deployment ended with the troops still in the United States, where they were sent to defend Hawaii instead.
====Other defense forces====
The [[United States Asiatic Fleet]] and [[United States naval districts|16th Naval District]], based at Manila, provided the naval defenses for the Philippines. Commanded by Admiral [[Thomas C. Hart]], the surface combatants of the Asiatic Fleet were the heavy cruiser {{USS|Houston|CA-30|6}}, the light cruiser {{USS|Marblehead|CL-12|6}}, and thirteen [[Clemson-class destroyer|World War I-era destroyers]].<ref>[http://www.asiaticfleet.com/orbat.htm United States Asiatic Fleet], complete Order of Battle including patrol craft of 16th Naval District.</ref> Its primary striking power lay in the 23 modern submarines assigned to the Asiatic Fleet. Submarine Squadron (SUBRON) Two consisted of 6 {{sclass|Salmon|submarine|1}}s, and SUBRON Five of 11 [[United States Porpoise-class submarine|''Porpoise'']] and {{sclass|Sargo|submarine|1}}s. In September 1941, naval patrol forces in the Philippines were augmented by the arrival of the six [[PT boat]]s of [[Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Three]]. Likewise, the China [[Yangtze Patrol]] gunboats also became part of the Philippine naval defenses: {{USS|Asheville|PG-21|6}}, {{USS|Mindanao|PR-8|6}}, {{USS|Luzon|PG-47|6}}, {{USS|Oahu|PR-6|6}}, and {{USS|Quail|AM-15|6}}. In December 1941, the naval forces were augmented by the schooner {{USS|Lanikai|1914|6}}.
The U.S. [[4th Marine Regiment]], stationed in [[Shanghai]] since the late 1920s, had anticipated a withdrawal from China during the summer of 1941. As personnel were routinely transferred back to the United States or separated from the service, the regimental commander, Colonel [[Samuel L. Howard]], arranged unofficially for all replacements to be placed in the 1st Special Defense Battalion, based at [[Cavite]]. When the 4th Marines arrived in the Philippines on 30 November 1941, it incorporated the Marines at Cavite and [[Olongapo Naval Station]]s into its understrength ranks.<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_29.htm#p527 ''The Fall of the Philippines''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525032120/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_29.htm#p527 |date=May 25, 2017 }}, pp. 528–529. The [[Beijing]] and [[Qinhuangdao]] detachments of the 4th were stranded in China by the onset of war. The 4th Marines had only two battalions, each organized into a machine gun company and two rifle companies of only two platoons each. The amalgamation of the 1st Special Defense Battalion, Cavite, enabled the 4th to organize a third battalion, and Marines of the Marine Barracks Olangapo enabled the 1st and 2nd Battalions to field three rifle companies of three platoons each.</ref> An initial plan to divide the 4th into two regiments, mixing each with a battalion of Philippine Constabulary, was discarded after Howard showed reluctance, and the 4th was stationed on Corregidor to augment the defenses there, with details detached to Bataan to protect USAFFE headquarters.
Additionally the [[United States Coast and Geodetic Survey]], a paramilitary survey force, operated in Manila with the ship [[USC&GSS Pathfinder (1899–1941)|USC&GSS ''Research'']].<ref Name=Pt5>{{cite web |url=http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/web/about_ngs/history/WWII-HISTORY-DOC-5-CGS.pdf |title=World War II History of the Department Of Commerce-Part 5 U.S. Coast And Geodetic Survey |author=Coast And Geodetic Survey |year=1951 |publisher=United States Government Printing Office |access-date=January 27, 2012}}</ref>
==Attack on Clark Field==
{{Main|Attack on Clark Field}}
[[File:Ibafield-oct 1941.jpg|thumb|B-17 at Iba Field in October 1941]]
News reached the Philippines that an [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] was in progress at 02:20 local time on 8 December 1941.<ref name=Couttie2009p101>{{cite book |title=Chew the Bones: Maddog Essays on Philippine History |chapter=17. The Last Charge |last=Couttie |first=Bob |page=101 |year=2009 |isbn=978-1442142596}}</ref><ref>The attack on Pearl Harbor had occurred on December 7 by local, Hawaiian time. This was December 8 in the Philippines, which is on the other side of the [[International Date Line]]. Clock time in the Philippines was 18 hours 30 minutes ahead of Hawaiian time (see [[zoneinfo]] database).</ref> FEAF interceptors had already conducted an air search for incoming aircraft reported shortly after midnight, but these had been Japanese scout planes reporting weather conditions.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Correll |first=John T. |date=December 2007 |title=Caught on the Ground |url=https://www.airforcemag.com/article/1207ground/ |magazine=Air Force |volume=90 |issue=12 |page=68}}</ref><ref name="lmcf">{{cite web |last=Morton |first=Louis |year=1953 |url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_5.htm#p79 |title=Chapter V. The First Days of War |work=The Fall of the Philippines CMH Pub 5-2 |publisher=US Army Center for Military History |access-date=November 25, 2010}}</ref> At 03:30, Brigadier General [[Richard K. Sutherland|Richard Sutherland]], chief of staff to MacArthur, heard about the attack from a commercial radio broadcast.<ref name=Couttie2009p101/> At 05:00 Brereton reported to USAFFE headquarters where he attempted to see MacArthur without success. He recommended to Sutherland that FEAF launch bombing missions against Formosa in accordance with [[Rainbow 5]] war plan directives from which an attack was likely to come. Brereton was further made aware of an attack against the {{USS|William B. Preston|DD-344|6}} at Davao Bay.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Japanese Attack Finds General Macarthur Unprepared |url=http://www.pacificwar.org.au/Philippines/Japanattacks.html |access-date=May 22, 2011 |website=The Pacific War Historical Society}}</ref> Authorization was withheld, but shortly afterward, in response to a telegram from General [[George C. Marshall]] instructing MacArthur to implement Rainbow 5, Brereton was ordered to have a strike in readiness for later approval.<ref name="lmcf"/><ref name="Correll, Caught on the Ground">Correll, "Caught on the Ground".</ref>
Through a series of disputed discussions and decisions, authorization for the first raid was not approved until 10:15 for an attack just before sunset, with a follow-up raid at dawn the next day. In the meantime, Japanese plans to attack Clark and Iba Fields using land-based naval bombers and Zero fighters were delayed six hours by fog at its Formosa bases, so that only a small scale Japanese Army mission attacked targets in the northern tip of Luzon. At 08:00, Brereton received a telephone call from General [[Henry H. Arnold]] warning him not to allow his aircraft to be attacked while still on the ground. FEAF launched three squadron-sized fighter patrols and all of its serviceable bombers on Luzon between 08:00 and 08:30 as a precautionary move.<ref>{{cite book |last=Edmunds |first=Walter D. |year=1992 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SX0OOdZEZTIC&q=Arnold+%22Brereton%22&pg=PA57 |title=They Fought With What They Had |access-date=January 28, 2011 |page=77 |publisher=DIANE |isbn=9781428915411}}</ref> After MacArthur gave Brereton authorization for an air strike, the bombers were ordered to land and prepare for the afternoon raid on Formosa. All three pursuit squadrons began to run short on fuel and broke off their patrols at the same time.
The 20th Pursuit Squadron's [[Curtiss P-40 Warhawk|Curtiss P-40B]] interceptors patrolled the area while the bombers landed at Clark Field between 10:30 and 10:45, then dispersed to their revetments for servicing.<ref name="lmcf"/> The 17th Pursuit Squadron, based at [[Nichols Field]], also landed at Clark and had its aircraft refueled while its pilots ate lunch, then put its pilots on alert shortly after 11:00.<ref>Edmunds, p. 83.</ref> All but two of the Clark Field B-17s were on the ground.<ref>Edmunds, p. 84. One was on a reconnaissance mission to Formosa, the other over eastern Luzon after taking off as the others were landing. A third B-17 was in the air en route from Mindanao for repair of a wing fuel tank.</ref>
At 11:27 and 11:29, the radar post at Iba Field detected two incoming raids while the closest was still 130 miles out. It alerted FEAF headquarters and the command post at Clark Field, a warning that reached only the pursuit group commander, Major Orrin L. Grover, who apparently became confused by multiple and conflicting reports.<ref name="lmcf"/><ref name="Correll, Caught on the Ground"/> The 3rd Pursuit Squadron took off from Iba at 11:45 with instructions to intercept the western force, which was thought to have Manila as its target, but dust problems during its takeoff resulted in the fragmentation of its flights. Two flights of the 21st Pursuit Squadron (PS) at Nichols Field, six P-40Es, took off at 11:45, led by 1st Lt. [[William E. Dyess|William Dyess]]. They started for Clark but were diverted to Manila Bay as a second line of defense if the 3rd PS failed to intercept its force. The 21st's third flight, taking off five minutes later, headed toward Clark, although engine problems with its new P-40Es reduced its numbers by two. The 17th Pursuit Squadron took off at 12:15 from Clark, ordered to patrol Bataan and Manila Bay, while the 34th PS at Del Carmen never received its orders to protect Clark Field and did not launch.<ref>Edmunds, pp. 84–85.</ref> The 20th PS, dispersed at Clark, was ready to take off but did not receive orders from group headquarters. Instead a line chief saw the incoming formation of Japanese bombers and the section commander, 1st Lt. [[Joseph Harold Moore|Joseph H. Moore]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lieutenant General Joseph H. Moore |url=https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Biographies/Display/Article/106184/lieutenant-general-joseph-h-moore/ |access-date=2022-02-13 |website=Air Force}}</ref> ordered the scramble himself.
Even though tracked by radar and with three U.S. pursuit squadrons in the air, when Japanese bombers of the 11th Kōkūkantai attacked Clark Field at 12:40,<ref>Edmunds, p. 102. Edmunds interviewed numerous officers present when the attack began.</ref> they achieved tactical surprise. Two squadrons of B-17s were dispersed on the ground. Most of the P-40s of the 20th PS were preparing to taxi and were struck by the first wave of 27 Japanese "Nell" bombers; only four of the 20th PS P-40Bs managed to take off as the bombs were falling.
A second bomber attack (26 "Betty" bombers) followed closely, then escorting Zero fighters strafed the field for 30 minutes, destroying 12 of the 17 American heavy bombers present and seriously damaging three others. Two damaged B-17s were made flyable and taken to Mindanao, where one of them was destroyed in a ground collision.<ref name="Correll, Caught on the Ground"/> A near-simultaneous attack on the auxiliary field at Iba to the northwest by 54 "Betty" bombers was also successful: all but four of the 3rd Pursuit Squadron's P-40s, short on fuel and caught in their landing pattern, were destroyed in combat or by lack of fuel.<ref>Edmunds, pp. 95–97. Four of the 18 airborne P-40s made Rosario airfield, while a fifth took off from Iba and found refuge there also.</ref> Twelve P-40s from the 20th (four), 21st (two), and 3rd (six) Squadrons attacked the strafers but with little success, losing at least four of their own.
The FEAF lost half its planes in the 45-minute attack and was all but destroyed over the next few days, including a number of the surviving B-17s lost to takeoff crashes of other planes.<ref name="lmcf" /> The 24th Pursuit Group flew its last interception on 10 December, losing 11 of the 40 or so P-40s it sent up, and the surviving P-35s of the 34th PS were destroyed on the ground at Del Carmen.<ref>Edmunds, pp. 133–136.</ref> That night FEAF combat strength had been reduced to 12 operable B-17s, 22 P-40s, and 8 P-35s.<ref>Edmunds, p. 138.</ref> Fighter strength fluctuated daily until 24 December, when USAFFE ordered all its forces into Bataan. Until then P-40s and P-35s were cobbled together from spare parts taken from wrecked airplanes, and still crated P-40Es were assembled at the Philippine Air Depot. Clark Field was abandoned as a bomber field on 11 December after being used as a staging base for a handful of B-17 missions.<ref>Edmunds, p. 133.</ref> Between 17 and 20 December, the 14 surviving B-17s were withdrawn to Australia. Every other aircraft of the FEAF was destroyed or captured.<ref>Edmunds, p. 178.</ref>
=== Aftermath ===
No formal investigation took place regarding this failure as it occurred in the aftermath of Pearl Harbor. After the war, Brereton and Sutherland in effect blamed each other for FEAF being surprised on the ground, and MacArthur released a statement that he had no knowledge of any recommendation to attack Formosa with B-17s.<ref name="lmcf" /> [[Walter D. Edmonds|Walter D. Edmunds]] summarizes the disaster: "in the Philippines the personnel of our armed forces almost without exception failed to assess accurately the weight, speed, and efficiency of the Japanese Air Force." He quotes Major General [[Emmett O'Donnell Jr.]], then a major in charge of the B-17s sent to Mindanao, as concluding that the first day was a "disorganized business" and that no one was "really at fault" because no one was "geared for war."<ref>Edmunds, p. 93.</ref> The attitude is not inline with his superiors, the United States Secretary of War [[Henry L. Stimson|Stimson]]'s recommendation was that, “all practical steps should be taken to increase the defensive strength of the Philippines.” as noted in the book ''With Courage: The U.S. Army Air Forces in World War II.'' McArthur was supposed to get the Philippines ready to resist a Japanese invasion if it came, however he was only recalled to duty in July 1941 and while many new pilots were being trained the aircraft were fast becoming obsolete compared to the latest generation of Japanese aircraft.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Army Air Forces in World War II. 7 vols |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/2468-1733_shafr_sim130060005 |access-date=2023-12-02 |website=The SHAFR Guide Online |pages=89|doi=10.1163/2468-1733_shafr_sim130060005 }}</ref>
==Invasion==
===Initial landings, 8 December 1941===
[[File:Invasion of the Philippines, 1941.jpg|thumb|300px|A map of Luzon Island showing Japanese landings and advances from 8 December 1941 to 8 January 1942.]]
The Japanese 14th Army began its invasion with a [[Japanese invasion of Batan Island|landing on Batan Island]] (not to be confused with [[Bataan|Bataan Peninsula]]), {{convert|120|mi|km}} off the north coast of Luzon, on 8 December 1941 by selected naval infantry units. Landings on [[Camiguin de Babuyanes|Camiguin Island]] and at [[Japanese invasion of Vigan|Vigan]], [[Japanese invasion of Aparri|Aparri]], and [[Gonzaga, Cagayan|Gonzaga]] in northern Luzon followed two days later.
Two B-17s attacked the Japanese ships offloading at Gonzaga. Other B-17s with fighter escort attacked the landings at Vigan. In this last coordinated action of the Far East Air Force, U.S. planes damaged two Japanese transports (''[[Japanese transport Oigawa Maru|Oigawa Maru]]'' and ''[[SS Takao Maru (1927)|Takao Maru]]''), the [[cruiser]] {{ship|Japanese cruiser|Naka||2}}, and the destroyer {{ship|Japanese destroyer|Murasame|1935|2}}, and sank [[minesweeper (ship)|minesweeper]] ''[[Japanese minesweeper No. 10 (1938)|W-10]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bob Hackett and Sander Kingsepp |year=2007 |title=IJN NAKA: Tabular Record of Movement |url=http://www.combinedfleet.com/naka_t.htm |access-date=September 26, 2007}}</ref>
Early on the morning of 12 December the Japanese landed 2,500 men of the 16th Division at [[Legazpi, Albay|Legazpi]] on southern Luzon, {{convert|150|mi|km}} from the nearest American and Philippine forces. The attack on Mindanao followed on 19 December using elements of the 16th Army temporarily attached to the invasion force to permit the 14th Army to use all its troops on Luzon.
Meanwhile, Hart withdrew most of his U.S. Asiatic Fleet from Philippine waters following Japanese air strikes that inflicted heavy damage on U.S. naval facilities at [[Naval Base Cavite|Cavite]] on 10 December. Only submarines were left to contest Japanese naval superiority, and the commanders of these, conditioned by prewar doctrine that held the fleet submarine to be a scouting vessel more vulnerable to air and anti-submarine attack than it actually was, proved unequal to the task. Because of this poor doctrine for submarine warfare and the infamous failures of the [[Mark 14 torpedo]] that plagued the U.S. submarine fleet for the first two years of the Pacific War, not a single Japanese warship was sunk by the Asiatic Fleet during the Philippines campaign.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://militaryhistoryonline.com/WWII/MarkXIVTorpedo |title=Fizzling Fish and Hidebound Bureucrats: The Tragedy of the Mark XIV Torpedo in World War II  |website=militaryhistoryonline.com |access-date=5 January 2022}}</ref>
James Leutze writes:
"He had 27 subs submerged in Manila Bay,...<ref>Leutze (1981), p. 235</ref> it was Washington, not the Asiatic Fleet Commander that directed the fleet to withdraw from Manila.<ref>Leutze (1981), p. 230</ref>... Hart was directed by Washington to send US Navy surface forces and submarines southeast toward Australia.<ref>Leutze (1981), p. 237</ref>... Douglas MacArthur and [[Henry Stimson]] ([[United States Secretary of War]]) feuding with Admiral Hart over lack of US Navy submarine action. MacArthur asked Admiral Hart: "What in the world is the matter with your submarines?".<ref>Leutze (1981), p. 242</ref>.. MacArthur complained that Hart's inactivity allowed Japan's navy freedom of action.<ref>Leutze (1981), p. 234</ref>... According to Stimson, MacArthur felt that Hart's ships and submarines were ineffectual, but because Admiral Hart had lost his courage. Admiral Hart's reaction to MacArthur's brickbats: "He (MacArthur) is inclined to cut my throat and perhaps the Navy in general."<ref>Leutze (1981), p. 240</ref>"
===Main attack, 22 December 1941===
{{unreferenced section|date=December 2017}}
[[File:Withdrawal South Dec 1941.jpg|thumb|300 px|Withdrawal in the south, 25–31 December 1941.]]
{{main|Japanese invasion of Lingayen Gulf|Japanese invasion of Lamon Bay}}
The main attack began early on the morning of 22 December as 43,110 men of the 48th Division and one regiment of the 16th Division, supported by artillery and approximately 90 tanks, landed at the three towns of [[Agoo]], [[Caba, La Union|Caba]], and [[Bauang]] in [[La Union]], along the east coast of Lingayen Gulf.<ref name="Hyper">{{cite web|title=The Main Landings|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-PI/USA-P-PI-8.html|access-date=18 March 2014}}</ref> A few B-17s flying from Australia attacked the invasion fleet and U.S. submarines harassed it from the adjacent waters, but to little effect.
General Wainwright's poorly trained and equipped 11th and 71st Divisions could neither repel the landings nor pin the enemy on the beaches. The remaining Japanese units of the divisions landed farther south along the gulf. The 26th Cavalry (PS) of the well-trained and better-equipped Philippine Scouts, advancing to meet them, put up a strong fight at [[Rosario, La Union|Rosario]] but was forced to withdraw after taking heavy casualties with no hope of sufficient reinforcements. By nightfall on 23 December the Japanese had moved ten miles (16&nbsp;km) into the interior.
The next day, 7,000 men of the 16th Division hit the beaches at three locations along the shore of Lamon Bay in southern Luzon, where they found General Parker's forces dispersed and without artillery protecting the eastern coast, unable to offer serious resistance. They consolidated their positions and began the drive north toward Manila where they would link up with the forces advancing south toward the capital.
===Withdrawal into Bataan, 24 December 1941 to 6 January 1942===
The U.S. Philippine Division moved into the field in reaction to reports of airborne drops near Clark Field, and when this proved false they were deployed to cover the withdrawal of troops into Bataan and to resist Japanese advances in the [[Subic Bay]] area.
On 24 December MacArthur invoked the prewar plan Orange 3, which called for use of five delaying positions in central Luzon while forces withdrew into Bataan. This was carried out in part by the 26th Cavalry Regiment.<ref>{{Citation |last=Merriam |first=Ray |year=1999 |title=War in the Philippines |publisher=Merriam Press |pages=70–82 |isbn=1-57638-164-1 |url={{Google books |plainurl=yes |id=utbD8wwF91kC |page=70}}| access-date =January 31, 2008}}</ref> He relieved Parker of his command of South Luzon Force and had him begin preparing defensive positions on Bataan, using units as they arrived; both the military headquarters and the Philippine's government were moved there. Nine days of feverish movement of supplies into Bataan, primarily by barge from Manila, began in an attempt to feed an anticipated force of 43,000 troops for six months. (Ultimately 80,000 troops and 26,000 refugees flooded Bataan.) Nevertheless, substantial forces remained in other areas for several months.
On 26 December Manila was declared an [[open city]] by MacArthur.<ref>{{Cite news |date=December 26, 1941 |title=Manila Declared 'Open City' |volume=C |page=1 |work=[[Chicago Daily Tribune]] |issue=309}}</ref> However, the U.S. military was still using the city for logistical purposes while the city was declared open,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.historynet.com/manila-how-open-was-this-open-city-january-98-world-war-ii-feature.htm|title=Manila: How Open Was This Open City?|author=John W. Whitman|date=January 1998|website=Historynet}}</ref> and the Japanese army ignored the declaration and bombed the city.<ref>{{Cite news |date=December 28, 1941 |title=Japanese Bombs Fire Open City of Manila; Civilian Toll Heavy; Invaders Gain in Luzon |volume=XCI |page=1 |work=[[The New York Times]] |issue=30,654 |url=http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-chat/2825808/posts}}</ref>
Units of both defense forces were maneuvered to hold open the escape routes into Bataan, in particular [[San Fernando, Pampanga|San Fernando]], the steel bridges at [[Calumpit]] over the deep [[Pampanga River]] at the north end of Manila Bay, and [[Plaridel, Bulacan|Plaridel]] north of Manila. The South Luzon Force, despite its inexperience and equivocating orders to withdraw and hold, successfully executed "[[Bounding overwatch|leapfrogging]]" [[Withdrawal (military)|retrograde]] techniques and crossed the bridges by 1 January. Japanese air commanders rejected appeals by the 48th Division to bomb the bridges to trap the retreating forces,<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_12.htm#p205 ''The Fall of the Philippines''], p. 208.</ref> which were subsequently demolished by Philippine Scout engineers on 1 January.
The Japanese realized MacArthur's plan on 30 December and ordered the 48th Division to press forward and seal off Bataan. In a series of actions between 2 and 4 January, the 11th and 21st Divisions of the Philippine Army, the 26th Cavalry (PS) and the American [[M3 Stuart]] tanks of the Provisional Tank Group held open the road from San Fernando to [[Dinalupihan]] at the neck of the peninsula for the retreating forces of the South Luzon Force, then made good their own escape. Despite 50% losses in the 194th Tank Battalion during the retreat, the Stuarts and a supporting battery of [[M3 GMC|75mm SPM halftracks]] repeatedly stopped Japanese thrusts and were the final units to enter Bataan.
On 30 December the American 31st Infantry moved to the vicinity of [[Dalton Pass]] to cover the flanks of troops withdrawing from central and southern Luzon, while other units of the Philippine Division organized positions at Bataan. The 31st Infantry then moved to a defensive position on the west side of the [[Olongapo]]-Manila road, near [[Layac Junction]]—at the neck of Bataan Peninsula—on 5 January. The junction was given up on 6 January, but the withdrawal to Bataan was successful.
==Battle of Bataan==
{{Main|Battle of Bataan}}
[[File:Situation on Bataan 8 Jan 1942.jpg|thumb|300 px|Situation on Bataan, 8 January 1942.]]
From 7 to 14 January the Japanese concentrated on reconnaissance and preparations for an attack on the main battle line from [[Abucay]] to [[Mount Natib]] to [[Mauban]]. At the same time, in a critical mistake, they relieved the 48th Division, responsible for much of the success of Japanese operations, with the much less-capable 65th Brigade, intended as a garrison force. The Japanese 5th Air group was withdrawn from operations on 5 January in preparation for movement with the 48th Division to the Netherlands East Indies.<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V2%20P1/ch6.htm#p103 Japanese Operations in the Southwest Pacific Area] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110523005338/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V2%20P1/ch6.htm#p103 |date=May 23, 2011 }}, p. 104.</ref> U.S. and Filipino forces repelled night attacks near Abucay, and elements of the U.S. Philippine Division counterattacked on 16 January. This failed, and the division withdrew to the reserve battle line from [[Pilar, Bataan|Casa Pilar]] to [[Bagac]] in the center of the peninsula on 26 January.
The 14th Army renewed its attacks on 23 January with an attempted amphibious landing behind the lines by a battalion of the 16th Division, then with general attacks beginning 27 January along the battle line. The amphibious landing was disrupted by a PT boat and contained in brutally dense jungle by ad hoc units made up of U.S. Army Air Corps troops, naval personnel, and Philippine Constabulary. The pocket was then slowly forced back to the cliffs, with high casualties on both sides. Landings to reinforce the surviving pocket on 26 January and 2 February were severely disrupted by air attacks from the few remaining FEAF P-40s, then trapped and eventually annihilated on 13 February.
A penetration in the I Corps line was stopped and broken up into several pockets. On 8 February Homma ordered the suspension of offensive operations in order to reorganize his forces. This could not be carried out immediately, because the 16th Division remained engaged trying to extricate a pocketed battalion of its 20th Infantry. With further losses, the remnants of the battalion, 378 officers and men, were extricated on 15 February. On 22 February the 14th Army line withdrew a few miles to the north, and USAFFE forces re-occupied the abandoned positions. The result of the Battle of the Points and Battle of the Pockets was total destruction of all three battalions of the Japanese 20th Infantry and a clear USAFFE victory.
For several weeks, the Japanese, deterred by heavy losses and reduced to a single brigade, conducted siege operations while waiting refitting and reinforcement. Both armies engaged in patrols and limited local attacks. Because of the worsening Allied position in the Asia-Pacific region, U.S. [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt|President Roosevelt]] ordered MacArthur to [[Douglas MacArthur's escape from the Philippines|proceed to Australia]] to become Supreme Allied Commander [[South West Pacific Area (command)|Southwest Pacific Area]]. On the way, at [[Terowie railway station|a rural railway station]] on 20 March, MacArthur first made the declaration that was to become his much-publicized theme for the following years: "I came through and I shall return".<ref>{{cite news |title=I came through; I shall return |url= https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/48749454 |newspaper=[[The Advertiser (Adelaide)|The Advertiser]] |location=Original, Adelaide; digital reprint, Canberra|via=National Library of Australia – [[Trove]] digital newspaper archive |date= 21 March 1942 |volume= LXXXIV |issue=26,040 |issn=1836-7682 |page=1 |access-date=31 March 2023}}</ref> Wainwright officially assumed control of what became United States Forces in the Philippines (USFIP) on 23 March. During this period, elements of the U.S. Philippine Division were shifted to assist in the defense of other sectors.
Beginning 28 March a new wave of Japanese air and artillery attacks hit Allied forces who were severely weakened by malnutrition, sickness and prolonged fighting. On 3 April 3 the Japanese began to break through along [[Mount Samat]], estimating that the offensive would require a month to end the campaign. The U.S. Philippine Division, no longer operating as a coordinated unit and exhausted by five days of nearly continuous combat, was unable to counterattack effectively against heavy Japanese assaults. On 8 April the U.S. 57th Infantry Regiment (PS) and the 31st Division (PA) were overrun near the [[Alangan River]]. The U.S. 45th Infantry Regiment (PS), under orders to reach Mariveles and evacuate to Corregidor, finally surrendered on 10 April. Only 300 men of the U.S. 31st Infantry successfully reached Corregidor.
==Battle of Corregidor==
{{Main|Battle of Corregidor}}
[[File:Japanese bombers over Corregidor.jpg|thumb|[[Mitsubishi Ki-21|Japanese bombers]] over Corregidor.]]
[[File:Map of Corregidor 1941.jpg|thumb|300 px|Map of Corregidor island in 1941.]]
Corregidor (which included Fort Mills) was a U.S. Army Coast Artillery Corps position defending the entrance to Manila Bay, part of the harbor defenses of Manila and Subic Bays. It was armed by older seacoast [[disappearing gun]] batteries of the [[59th Coast Artillery (United States)|59th]] and [[91st Coast Artillery (United States)|91st Coast Artillery]] Regiments (the latter a Philippine Scouts unit), an offshore mine field of approximately 35 groups of [[controlled mines]],<ref name="CAJHarris1">{{Cite journal |last=Bocksel |first=Arnold A. |date=1946 |title=The USAMP ''General George Harrison'' in the Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bay |url=http://sill-www.army.mil/ada-online/coast-artillery-journal/_docs/1946/11-12/Nov-Dec%201946.pdf |journal=Coast Artillery Journal |volume=89 |issue=6 |page=54 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180212201447/http://sill-www.army.mil/ada-online/coast-artillery-journal/_docs/1946/11-12/Nov-Dec%201946.pdf |archive-date=February 12, 2018 |access-date=February 11, 2018}}</ref> and an anti-aircraft unit, the [[60th Coast Artillery (United States)|60th CA (AA)]]. The latter was posted on the higher elevations of Corregidor. The older stationary batteries with fixed mortars and immense cannon, for defense from attack by sea, were easily put out of commission by Japanese bombers. The American soldiers and Filipino Scouts defended the small fortress until they had little left to wage a defense. Early in 1942, the Japanese air command installed oxygen in its bombers to fly higher than the range of the Corregidor anti-aircraft batteries, and after that time, heavier bombardment began.
In December 1941, Philippines President [[Manuel L. Quezon]], General MacArthur, other high-ranking military officers and diplomats and families escaped the bombardment of Manila and were housed in Corregidor's [[Malinta Tunnel]]. Prior to their arrival, Malinta's laterals had served as high command headquarters, hospital and storage of food and arms. In March 1942, several U.S. Navy submarines arrived on the north side of Corregidor. The Navy brought in mail, orders, and weaponry. They took away with them the high American and Filipino government officers, gold and silver, and other important records. Those who were unable to escape by submarine became prisoners of war or were placed in civilian [[concentration camps]] in Manila and other locations.
[[File:Captured Japanese photograph. U.S. soldiers and sailors surrendering to Japanese forces at Corregidor, Philippine... - NARA - 531354.tif|thumb|U.S. and Filipino soldiers and sailors surrendering to Japanese forces at Corregidor.]]
Corregidor was defended by 11,000 personnel, comprising the units mentioned above that were stationed on Corregidor, the U.S. 4th Marine Regiment, and U.S. Navy personnel deployed as infantry. Some were able to get to Corregidor from the Bataan Peninsula when the Japanese overwhelmed the units there. The Japanese began their final assault on Corregidor with an artillery barrage on 1 May. On the night of 5/6 May two battalions of the Japanese 61st Infantry Regiment landed at the northeast end of the island. Despite strong resistance, the Japanese established a [[beachhead]] that was reinforced by tanks and artillery. The defenders were quickly pushed back toward the stronghold of Malinta Hill.
Late on 6 May Wainwright asked Homma for terms of surrender. Homma insisted that surrender include all Allied forces in the Philippines. Believing that the lives of all those on Corregidor would be endangered, Wainwright accepted. On 8 May he sent a message to Sharp ordering him to surrender the Visayan-Mindanao Force. Sharp complied, but many individuals carried on the fight as [[guerilla warfare|guerrillas]]. Few unit commanders were so hard pressed as to be forced to surrender, and none had any desire to surrender. Sharp's decision to surrender involved many factors. Major Larry S. Schmidt, in a 1982 master's degree thesis, said Sharp's decision was based on two reasons: that the Japanese were capable of executing the 10,000 survivors of Corregidor, and that Sharp now knew his forces would not be reinforced by the United States, as had been previously thought.<ref>{{cite thesis|first = Larry S.|last = Schmidt|title = American Involvement in the Filipino Resistance Movement on Mindanao During the Japanese Occupation, 1942–1945|type=MMAS |publisher= U.S. Army Command and General Staff College|location = Fort Leavenworth, Kans.|page = 68|url = https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/b068659.pdf|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191212174805/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/b068659.pdf|url-status = live|archive-date = December 12, 2019}}</ref>
===List of U.S. generals who became prisoners-of-war===
[[File:American generals in captivity, July 1942.jpg|thumb|right|U.S. generals in a group photo with Japanese captors]]
Eighteen United States Army generals surrendered to Japanese forces by May 1942:<ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1943/10/12/88571678.pdf |title=30 Generals Killed, Captured or Missing: 7 Admirals, 2 Marine Generals Also on Casualty Rolls |date=October 12, 1943 |page=12 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=January 19, 2023}}</ref>
*Lieutenant General [[Jonathan M. Wainwright (general)|Jonathan M. Wainwright]], commanding general, United States Forces in the Philippines (USFIP)
*Major General [[Albert M. Jones]], commanding general, Philippine I Corps
*Major General [[Edward P. King]], commanding general, Northern Luzon
*Major General [[George F. Moore (United States Army officer)|George F. Moore]], commanding general, [[Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays]]/Philippine Coast Artillery
*Major General [[George M. Parker (United States Army officer)|George M. Parker]], commanding general, Southern Luzon/Philippine II Corps
*Major General [[William F. Sharp]], commanding general, Visayan-Mindanao Force Philippines
*Brigadier General [[Lewis C. Beebe]], chief of staff to Lieutenant General Jonathan M. Wainwright
*Brigadier General [[Clifford Bluemel]], commanding general, [[31st Division (Philippines)]]
*Brigadier General [[William E. Brougher]], commanding general, [[11th Division (Philippines)]]
*Brigadier General [[Bradford G. Chynoweth]], commanding general, [[61st Division (Philippines)]]
*Brigadier General [[Charles C. Drake]], commanding general, Quartermaster Corps in the Philippines
*Brigadier General [[Arnold J. Funk]], chief of staff to Major General Edward P. King
*Brigadier General [[Maxon S. Lough]], commanding general, [[Philippine Division (United States)|Philippine Division]]
*Brigadier General [[Allan C. McBride]], deputy chief of staff to General Douglas MacArthur and commanding general of the Service Command Area {{KIA}} (died 9 May 1944 in a prisoner-of-war camp)
*Brigadier General [[Clinton A. Pierce]], commanding general, [[26th Cavalry Regiment (Philippine Scouts)]]
*Brigadier General [[Carl H. Seals]], adjutant general, United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE)<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/148640018 |title=Gen. Carl Seals |date=October 31, 1955 |page=20 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=January 19, 2023|id={{ProQuest|148640018}} }}</ref>
*Brigadier General [[Joseph P. Vachon]], commanding general, [[101st Division (Philippines)]]
*Brigadier General [[James R.N. Weaver]], commanding general, 1st Provisional Tank Group
Two Americans serving as Philippine Army generals also surrendered to Japanese forces:
*Brigadier General [[Guy Fort|Guy O. Fort]], commanding general, [[81st Division (Philippines)]] {{KIA}} (executed 11 November 1942 in a prisoner-of-war camp)
*Brigadier General [[Luther R. Stevens]], commanding general, [[91st Division (Philippines)]]
The other Philippine Army generals captured by Japanese forces were native Filipinos Major General [[Guillermo B. Francisco]] and Brigadier Generals [[Mateo M. Capinpin]], [[Vicente Lim|Vicente P. Lim]] and [[Fidel Segundo|Fidel V. Segundo]]. Ten U.S. Army generals and General Stevens surrendered at Bataan in April 1942.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/151521303 |title=Ten U.S. and Six Philippine Generals Captured on Bataan |date=April 18, 1942 |page=3 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=February 6, 2023|id={{ProQuest|151521303}} }}</ref> Generals Wainwright, Moore, Beebe and Drake surrendered at Corregidor in May 1942. Generals Sharp, Chynoweth, Seals, Vachon and Fort were captured in the southern Philippines.
==Aftermath==
{{See also|Japanese war crimes}}
[[File:JapaneseTroopsBataan1942.jpg|thumb|Japanese troops conquered Bataan, Philippines in 1942]]
[[File:March of Death - Resting 03.jpg|thumb|Group of American prisoners, May 1942]]
General Homma's victory in the Philippines was not received at the Imperial General Headquarters, and specifically by Premier Hideki Tojo, as warmly as he hoped for. They scoffed at Homma's supposed inefficiency and lack of drive to defeat the Americans according to their planned timetable. Homma then was recalled to Tokyo to serve as a reserve officer.<ref>{{cite book|last=Agoncillo|first=Teodoro|title=The Fateful Years: Japan's Adventure in the Philippines, 1941–1945, Volume Two|publisher=University of the Philippines Press|date=2001|page=295}}</ref>
The defeat was the beginning of three and a half years of harsh treatment for the Allied survivors, including atrocities like the [[Bataan Death March]] and the misery of Japanese prison camps, and the "[[Hell ship#Japanese hell ships|hell ships]]" on which American and Allied men were sent to Japan to be used as slave labor in mines and factories. Thousands were crowded into the holds of Japanese ships without water, food, or sufficient ventilation.<ref name="HS1">{{cite web |url=http://www.hellshipsmemorial.com/ |title=The Hellships Memorial |publisher=Hellships Memorial Project |access-date=April 14, 2011}}</ref> The Japanese did not mark "POW" on the decks of these vessels,<ref name="HS1"/><ref name="WPHS">{{cite web |url=http://www.west-point.org/family/japanese-pow/photos.htm |title=Hellship Information and Photographs |date=January 17, 2005 |publisher=West-Point.Org |access-date=April 14, 2011}}</ref> and some were attacked and sunk by Allied aircraft and submarines.<ref>{{cite news |title=American POWs remember life in Japanese prison camp |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-pows-idUSPEK37053320070525 |work=Reuters |date=May 25, 2007 |access-date=April 14, 2011}}</ref> For example, on 7 September 1944 {{SS|Shinyō Maru}} was sunk by {{USS|Paddle|SS-263|6}} with losses of 668 POWs; only 82 POWs survived.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://philippine-defenders.lib.wv.us/html/hellships.html |title=Hellships |work=Defenders of the Philippine |publisher=West Virginia Library Commission |access-date=April 14, 2011}}</ref>
Although the campaign was a victory to the Japanese, it took longer than anticipated to defeat the Filipinos and Americans. This required forces that would have been used to attack [[Battle of Borneo (1941–1942)|Borneo]] and [[Battle of Java (1942)|Java]] to be diverted to the battle in the Philippines<ref>{{cite book |title=The Pacific War |last=Costello |first=John |year=1982 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-688-01620-3 |page=185 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lnf4Wnp_JZcC&q=Philippines%20slowed%20Japanese%20advance&pg=PA185 |access-date=April 14, 2011}}</ref> and also slowed the advance on [[New Guinea campaign|New Guinea]] and the [[Solomon Islands campaign|Solomon Islands]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.peleliu1944.com/momument.pdf |title=Manila American Cemetery and Memorial |publisher=[[American Battle Monuments Commission]] |access-date=April 14, 2011}}</ref>
During the [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines|occupation of the Philippines]], American and Filipino guerrillas [[Philippine resistance against Japan|fought against the occupying forces]].<ref>{{cite book |author=General MacArthur's General Staff |date=June 20, 2006 |orig-year=1966 |title=Reports of General MacArthur |chapter= Chapter X – Guerrilla Activities in the Philippines  |chapter-url=http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V1/ch10.htm |publisher=United States Army |pages=295–326 |lccn=66-60005 |access-date=May 9, 2018 |archive-date=January 31, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131040027/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/macarthur%20reports/macarthur%20v1/ch10.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Allied and Philippine Commonwealth forces began the [[Philippines campaign (1944–1945)|campaign to recapture the Philippines]] in 1944, with [[Battle of Leyte|landings on the island of Leyte]]. On 29 January 1945 US and Philippine forces liberated POWs in the [[Raid at Cabanatuan]].
===Importance===
[[File:Tribune Apr 24 1942.jpg|thumb|upright|Manila newspaper announcing the fall of Bataan]]
The defense of the Philippines was the longest resistance to the Japanese Imperial Army in the initial stages of World War II. After the [[Battle of Bataan|Battle of Abucay]], the Japanese started to withdraw from Bataan and resumed their attack in April, allowing MacArthur 40 days to prepare Australia as an operational base; the initial resistance in the Philippines allowed Australia crucial time to organize for its defense.<ref>Webb, W. E. (1950). The Operations of the 41st Infantry Regiment (Philippine Army) of the 41st Infantry Division<br />in the Defense of the Abucay Line, Bataan, Philippine Islands, January 10–18, 1942 (Philippine Campaign). The Infantry School, Staff Department. Fort Benning: US Army.</ref> Philippine-American resistance against the Japanese up to the fall of Bataan on 9 April 1942 lasted 105 days (3 months and 2 days).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Atienza |first=Rigoberto J. |title=A Time for War: 105 Days in Bataan |date=1985 |publisher=Eugenia S. vda. de Atienza |location=Manila}}</ref>
==USAFFE order of battle, December 3, 1941; casualty reports==
===United States Army Forces Far East===
General '''[[Douglas MacArthur]]'''
====Ground forces====
: [[Philippine Constabulary]] (Maj. Gen. [[Guillermo B. Francisco|Guillermo Francisco]])
:: 1st PC Regiment
:: 2nd PC Regiment
:: 3rd PC Regiment
:: 4th PC Regiment
: HQ Philippine Dept. (Maj. Gen. [[George Grunert]])
: Headquarters, [[Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays]]
: '''[[Philippine Division (United States)|Philippine Division]]''' (PS=[[Philippine Scouts]]) (As of 31 Jul 1941, Division numbered 10,743)
:: Post Service Command (PS) (ABMC lists 175 dead)
:: '''Infantry'''
::: [[31st Infantry Regiment (United States)|31st US Infantry Regiment]] (ABMC lists 936 dead)
::: [[43rd Infantry Regiment (United States)|43rd US Infantry Regiment]] (PS) (ABMC lists 31 dead)
::: [[45th Infantry Regiment (United States)|45th US Infantry Regiment]] (PS) (ABMC lists 1,039 dead)
::: [[57th Infantry Regiment (United States)|57th US Infantry Regiment]] (PS) (ABMC lists 983 dead)
::: [[26th Cavalry Regiment (United States)|26th US Cavalry Regiment]] (ABMC lists 301 dead)
:: '''Provisional Tank Group''' ([[Brigadier general (United States)|Brig. Gen.]] [[James R.N. Weaver|James Weaver]])<ref>{{cite book |title=The Times When Men Must Die: The Story of the Destruction of the Philippine Army During the Early Months of World War II in the Pacific, December 1941 – May 1942 |last=Diosco |first=Marconi M. |year=2010 |publisher=[[Dorrance Publishing Co.]] |location=[[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] |isbn=978-1-4349-0809-4 |page=40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y27BAbDZLXEC&pg=PA40 |access-date=May 30, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Capistrano |first=Robert |date=1982 |title=The Southwest Pacific Theater or Operations |volume=37 |pages=11–13 |work=The Quan |publisher=American Defenders of Bataan & Corregidor, Inc. |issue=2 |url=http://philippine-defenders.lib.wv.us/QuanNews/quan1900s/quan1980s/september_1982_quan.pdf |url-status=dead |access-date=May 30, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824110022/http://philippine-defenders.lib.wv.us/QuanNews/quan1900s/quan1980s/september_1982_quan.pdf |archive-date=2011-08-24 |quote=Provisional Tank Group: BG James R.N. Weaver, USA (Ft. Stotsenburg)(organized 21 November 1941 with the arrival of the following units)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=MacArthur |first=Douglas |date=July 1964 |title=The Country's Safety Was at State and I Said So |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nEEEAAAAMBAJ&q=Brigadier%20General%20James%20R.%20N.%20Weaver&pg=PA66-IA2 |magazine=Life |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=55–66 |quote=At this critical point I threw in my last reserve supported by a small light tank force under Brig. General James R. N. Weaver. |via=Google Books}}</ref>
::: 17th Ordnance Battalion (one Company) (ABMC lists 45 dead)
::: [[192nd Tank Battalion]] (ABMC lists 189 dead)<ref>Company A was from [[Janesville, Wisconsin]]; Company B was from Maywood and [[Proviso Township, Cook County, Illinois]]; Company C was from [[Port Clinton, Ohio]]; Company D aka "Harrodsburg Tankers" was from [[Harrodsburg, Kentucky]]; see [https://books.google.com/books?id=400EAAAAMBAJ]</ref>+ HQ Co 192nd Tank Battalion (ABMC lists 2 dead){{efn|192nd Tank Battalion article reports 328 did not survive the war}}
::: 194th Tank Battalion less Company B (ABMC lists 183 dead)
:: '''Artillery'''
::: 1st Philippine Coast Artillery (ABMC lists 1 dead)
::: [[23rd Field Artillery Regiment (United States)|23rd Field Artillery]] (PS) (Btry A) (ABMC lists 159 dead+ 1 dead) (1st Battalion)
::: [[24th Field Artillery Regiment (United States)|24th Field Artillery]] (PS) (ABMC lists 309 dead)
::: [[59th Air Defense Artillery Regiment (United States)|59th Coast Artillery]] (US Army) (Corregidor) (ABMC lists 329 dead+1 (Col. Paul Bunker))
::: 86th Field Artillery (PS) (ABMC lists 169 total (8 Dead for Regiment + 161 dead for Battalion)
::: 88th Field Artillery (PS) (ABMC lists 186 dead)
::: [[91st Coast Artillery (United States)|91st Coast Artillery]] (PS) (ABMC lists 202 dead)
::: [[92nd Coast Artillery (United States)|92nd Coast Artillery]] (PS) (Corregidor) (ABMC lists 200 dead)
::: [[200th Coast Artillery (United States)|200th Coast Artillery]] (US Army) (ABMC lists 373 dead)
::: [[60th Coast Artillery (United States)]] (Corregidor) (ABMC lists 390 dead)
::: 515th Coast Artillery Regiment (US Army) (ABMC lists 207 dead)
:: '''Support'''
::: 14th Engineer Regiment (PS) (ABMC lists 324 dead)
::: 14th Engineer Battalion (PS) (ABMC lists 4 dead)
::: 202nd Philippine Engineer Battalion (US Army) (ABMC lists 9 dead)
::: 12th Medical Battalion (PS) (ABMC lists 121 dead)
::: 12th Medical Regiment (PS) (ABMC lists 13 dead)
::: 71st Medical Battalion (PS) (ABMC lists 0 dead)
::: 12th Military Police Company (PS) (ABMC lists 40 dead)
::: 808th Military Police Company (US Army) (ABMC lists 90 dead)
::: 47th Motor Transport Company (PS) (ABMC lists 1 dead)
::: 12th Ordnance Company (PS) (ABMC lists 45 dead)
::: 17th Ordnance Company (US Army) (ABMC lists 45 dead)
::: 75th Ordnance Depot Company (US Army) (ABMC lists 3 dead
::: 75th Ordnance Company (US Army) (ABMC lists 35 dead)
::: 12th Quartermaster Battalion HQ (PS) (ABMC lists 3 dead)
::: 12th Quartermaster Battalion (PS) (ABMC lists 70 dead)
::: [[12th Quartermaster Regiment (United States)]] (PS) (ABMC lists 90 dead)
::: 74th Quartermaster Bakery Co (PS) (ABMC lists 17 dead)
::: 12th Signal Company (PS) (ABMC lists 77 dead)
::: 252nd Signal Construction Company (PS) (ABMC lists 44 dead)
====Air forces====
: '''[[Far East Air Force (United States)|Far East Air Force]]'''
: Major General '''[[Lewis H. Brereton]]'''
: Brigadier General [[Harold H. George|Harold Huston George]]{{efn|Killed in flying accident Australia 30 Apr 1942}}
:: 5th Air Base Group
:: '''[[V Bomber Command]]'''
::: '''[[19th Operations Group|19th Bomb Group (Heavy)]]''' (Headquarters, Clark Field) (ABMC lists 3 dead); HQ Squadron 19th BG (ABMC lists 103 dead)
:::: [[14th Bombardment Squadron|14th Bomb Squadron]] ([[Del Monte Field]], December 5, 8 [[B-17 Flying Fortress]]) (ABMC lists 13 dead)
:::: [[28th Bomb Squadron]] ([[Clark Field]], 8 B-17) (ABMC lists 93 dead)
:::: [[30th Bombardment Squadron|30th Bomb Squadron]] (Clark Field, 9 B-17) (ABMC lists 110 dead)
:::: [[93d Bomb Squadron|93rd Bomb Squadron]] (Del Monte Field, December 5, 8 B-17) (ABMC lists 116 dead)
:::: 440th Ordnance Squadron (ABMC Lists 68 dead)
::: '''[[27th Special Operations Group|27th Bomb Group (Light)]]'''{{efn|Ground echelon fought at Bataan as 2nd Battalion (27th Bombardment Group) Provisional Infantry Regiment (Air Corp).}} Headquarters (ABMC lists 3 dead)
:::: [[2d Air Refueling Squadron|2nd Observation Squadron]] (Nichols Field, 21 various aircraft) (ABMC lists 71 dead)
:::: [[522d Fighter Squadron|16th Bomb Squadron]] ([[Fort William McKinley]]) (ABMC lists 72 dead)
:::: [[523d Fighter Squadron|17th Bomb Squadron]] (San Fernando Field) (ABMC Lists 62 dead)
:::: [[524th Fighter Squadron|91st Bomb Squadron]] (San Marcelino Field, [[B-18 Bolo]]) (ABMC lists 76 dead)
:::: 48th Material Squadron (ABMC lists 53 dead+ 19 also listed dead when the 48th Squadron was part of V Air Base Group)
:::: 454th Ordnance Squadron (ABMC lists 71 dead)
:: '''V Interceptor Command'''
::: '''19th Air Base Group''' (ABMC lists 1 dead)
::: '''[[20th Air Base Group]]''' (ABMC lists 1 dead)
:::: Tow Target Detachment
:::: 5th Communications Detachment (ABMC lists 0 dead)
:::: 5th Weather Detachment (ABMC lists 0 dead)
:::: Chemical Warfare Detachment
::::: 4th Chemical Company (Aviation) (ABMC lists 33 dead)
::::: 5th Chemical Detachment (Company-Aviation) (ABMC lists 2 dead)
:::: 19th Air Base Squadron (ABMC lists 79 dead)
:::: 27th Material Squadron (ABMC lists 75 dead)
:::: 28th Material Squadron (ABMC lists 92 dead)
:::: 47th Material Squadron
:::: 803d Engineering Detachment (Battalion-Aviation) (ABMC lists 232 dead)
:::: 809th Engineering Detachment
:::: 409th Signal/Communications Detachment (Company-Aviation) (ABMC lists 29 dead)
:::: 429th Maintenance Detachment
::: '''[[24th Pursuit Group]]''' (Headquarters, Clark Field). Colonel Orrin l. Grover. HQ Squadron (ABMC lists 112 dead)
:::: [[3d Fighter Training Squadron|3rd Pursuit Squadron]] ([[Iba, Zambales|Iba Field]], 18 [[P-40 Warhawk|P-40E Warhawk]]) (ABMC lists 0 dead)
:::: [[17th Weapons Squadron|17th Pursuit Squadron]] ([[Nichols Field]], 18 P-40E) (ABMC lists 0 dead)
:::: [[20th Pursuit Squadron]] (Clark Field, 18 P-40B) (ABMC lists 96 dead)
::: '''[[35th Operations Group|35th Pursuit Group]]''' (headquarters en route to Philippines) (ABMC lists 5 dead)
:::: [[21st Pursuit Squadron]] (attached 24th PG, Nichols Field, 18 P-40E received December 7) (ABMC lists 89 dead)
:::: [[34th Pursuit Squadron]] (attached 24th PG, Del Carmen Field, 18 [[Seversky P-35A]] received December 7) (ABMC lists 0 dead)
:: Philippine Aircraft Warning Detachment
:: 6th Pursuit Squadron, [[Philippine Army Air Corps]] (Batangas Field, 12 [[P-26 Peashooter]]) (ABMC lists 1 dead)
===Philippine Army===
Major General '''[[Basilio Valdes]]'''
: 1st (Regular) Division (Brig. Gen. [[Fidel Segundo|Fidel V. Segundo]] / Col. Kearie Berry)
:: 1st Infantry Regiment
:: 3rd Infantry Regiment
:: 4th Infantry Regiment
:: 1st Field Artillery Group
: 2nd PC Division (Maj. Gen. [[Guillermo B. Francisco|Guillermo Francisco]])
:: 1st PC Regiment (Lt. Col. [[Mariano Castañeda]])
:: 2nd PC Regiment (Lt. Col. Manuel V. Anastacio)
:: 4th PC Regiment (Lt. Col. [[Rafael Jalandoni]])
:: 2nd Field Artillery Regiment (PC) (Lt. Col. Emmanuel Cepeda)
: 11th Division (Brig. Gen. [[William E. Brougher|William Brougher]])
:: HQ 11th Division (ABMC lists 1 dead)
:: HQ Com 11th Division (ABMC lists 1 dead)
:: 11th Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 4 dead)
:: 12th Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 2 dead)
:: 13th Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 1 dead)
:: 11th Field Artillery Regt (ABMC lists 1 dead)
: 21st Division (Brig. Gen. [[Mateo M. Capinpin|Mateo Capinpin]])
:: 21st Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 3 dead)
:: 22nd Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 3 dead)
:: 21st Field Artillery Regiment (ABMC lists 3 dead)
:: 21st Engineer Battalion (ABMC lists 2 dead)
: 31st Division (Brig. Gen. [[Clifford Bluemel]])
:: 31st Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 6 dead)
:: 32nd Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 3 dead)
:: 31st Field Artillery Regiment (ABMC lists 2 dead)
:: 31st Engineer Battalion (ABMC lists 1 dead)
: 41st Division (Brig. Gen. [[Vicente Lim]]) (ABMC listed dead)
:: 41st Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 6 dead)
:: 42nd Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 4 dead)
:: 41st Engineer Battalion (ABMC lists 1 dead)
: 51st Division (Brig. Gen. [[Albert M. Jones|Albert Jones]] / Col. Adlai Young)
:: 51st Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 4 dead)
:: 52nd Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 4 dead)
:: 53rd Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 4 dead)
:: 51st Field Artillery Regiment (ABMC lists 4 dead)
: 61st Division (Brig Gen. [[Bradford G. Chynoweth|Bradford Chynoweth]] / Col. Albert Christie)
:: HQ 61st Division (ABMC Lists 1 dead)
:: 61st Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 1 dead)
:: 62nd Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 4 dead)
:: 63rd Infantry Regiment (ABMC Lists 1 dead)
:: 64th Infantry Regiment
:: 65th Infantry Regiment
:: 61st Field Artillery Regiment (ABMC lists 4 dead)
: 71st Division (Brig. Gen. [[Clyde A. Selleck|Clyde Selleck]] / Brig. Gen. [[Clinton A. Pierce|Clinton Pierce]])
:: 71st Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 2 dead)
:: 72nd Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 6 dead)
:: 73rd Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 3 dead)
:: 74th Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 1 dead)
:: 75th Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 1 dead)
:: 71st Field Artillery Regiment (ABMC Lists 1 dead)
:: 71st Quartermaster Co (ABMC lists 1 dead)
: 81st Division (Brig Gen [[Guy Fort|Guy O. Fort]]) (KIA)
:: 81st Division (ABMC lists 5 dead)
:: 82nd Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 2 dead)
:: 83rd Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 1 dead)
:: 81st Field Artillery Regiment (ABMC lists 2 dead)
:: 81st Engineer Battalion (ABMC lists 1 dead)
: 91st Division (Brig. Gen. [[Luther R. Stevens|Luther Stevens]])
:: HQ 91st Division (ABMC lists 1 dead)
:: 91st Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 2 dead)
:: 92nd Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 5 dead)
:: 93rd Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 1 dead)
:: 91st Field Artillery Regiment (ABMC lists 5 dead)
: 101st Division (Brig. Gen. [[Joseph P. Vachon|Joseph Vachon]])
: (ABMC lists 1 with Division)
:: 101st Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 7 dead)
:: 102nd Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 0 dead)
:: 103rd Infantry Regiment (ABMC lists 3 dead)
:: 101st Field Artillery Regiment ABMC lists 1 dead)
:: 101st Engineer Battalion (ABMC Lists 1 dead)
: 102nd Division (Col. [[William P. Morse]])
: Provisional Field Artillery Brigade (Col. Albert Ives)
: [[Harbor Defenses of Manila and Subic Bays]]{{efn|For strength in November 1941 see [http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-PI/USA-P-PI-3.html]}}
:: Harbor defenses included units listed above
:: HQ and HQ Battery
::: [[59th Air Defense Artillery Regiment|59th Coast Artillery]] (see above for casualty listings)
::: [[60th Coast Artillery]] (see above for casualty listings)
::: [[91st Coast Artillery (United States)|91st Coast Artillery]] (PS) (see above for casualty listings)
::: [[92nd Coast Artillery (United States)|92nd Coast Artillery]] (PS) (see above for casualty listings)
:: [[U.S. Army Mine Planter Service|USAMP]] ''Harrison''<ref name=CAJHarris1/>
: Station Hospital
: Chemical Warfare Detachment
===United States Navy===
[[United States Asiatic Fleet]] and [[16th Naval District]]<br>
Admiral '''[[Thomas C. Hart]]'''
: '''1 heavy cruiser'''
:: {{USS|Houston|CA-30}} – lost 1 Mar 1942, 368 survived of 1,061 crew
: '''2 light cruisers'''
:: {{USS|Boise|CL-47}}
:: {{USS|Marblehead|CL-12}}
: '''13 destroyers'''
:: Destroyer Squadron 29 (Capt. Herbert V. Wiley)
::: {{USS|Black Hawk|AD-9}}
::: {{USS|Paul Jones|DD-230}}
:: Destroyer Division 50 (Cmdr. [[P.H. Talbot]])
::: {{USS|John D. Ford|DD-228}}
::: {{USS|Peary|DD-226}} – escaped to Australia; sunk 19 Feb 1942
::: {{USS|Pillsbury|DD-227}} – escaped to Dutch East Indies; sunk 2 Mar 1942
::: {{USS|Pope|DD-225}} – escaped to Dutch East Indies; sunk 1 Mar 1942
:: Destroyer Division 57 (Cmdr. E.M. Crouch)
::: {{USS|Alden|DD-211}}
::: {{USS|Edsall|DD-219}} – escaped to Australia; sunk 1 Mar 1942
::: {{USS|John D. Edwards|DD-216}}
::: {{USS|Whipple|DD-217}}
:: Destroyer Division 58 (Cmdr. Thomas H. Binford)
::: {{USS|Barker|DD-213}}
::: {{USS|Bulmer|DD-222}}
::: {{USS|Parrott|DD-218}}
::: {{USS|Stewart|DD-224}} – escaped to Java and scuttled 2 Mar 1942; salvaged as IJN Patrol Boat 102, sunk in 1946
: '''1 minesweeper'''
:: {{USS|Whippoorwill|AM-35}}
: '''6 [[Motor Torpedo Boat|PT boats]]'''
:: [[Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Three]]
::: ''PT-31'', ''PT-32'', ''PT-33'', ''PT-34'', ''PT-35'', ''PT-41'' — all lost 6 Dec 1941–March 1942.
: '''US Submarines at Manila''' ([[Mariveles Naval Section Base]], [[Cavite, Philippines]])
:: [[Submarine Squadron 2]] (12 ''S''- and ''Salmon''-class)
:: Submarine Squadron 5 (11 ''Porpoise''- and ''Sargo''-class)
:: Submarine Squadron 21 (4 ''Porpoise''- and ''Sargo''-class)
:: submarine tender {{USS|Holland|AS-3}}
:: 6 [[United_States S-class submarine|''S''-class]] (4 torpedo tubes, 14 knots surfaced)
::: {{USS|S-36|SS-141}} – scuttled following grounding 21 Jan 1942
::: {{USS|S-37|SS-142}}
::: {{USS|S-38|SS-143}}
::: {{USS|S-39|SS-144}} – run aground and abandoned 13 Aug 1942
::: {{USS|S-40|SS-145}}
::: {{USS|S-41|SS-146}}
:: 7 [[United States Porpoise-class submarine|''Porpoise''-class]] (6 torpedo tubes, 18 knots surfaced)
::: {{USS|Porpoise|SS-172}}
::: {{USS|Pike|SS-173}}
::: {{USS|Shark|SS-174}}
::: {{USS|Tarpon|SS-175}}
::: {{USS|Perch|SS-176}} – escaped to Australia; scuttled 3 Mar 1942 (6 out of 54 crew did not survive the war)
::: {{USS|Pickerel|SS-177}} – escaped to Australia; lost with all hands 3 Apr 1943
::: {{USS|Permit|SS-178}}
:: 5 [[Salmon-class submarine|''Salmon''-class]] (8 torpedo tubes, 21 knots surfaced)
::: {{USS|Salmon|SS-182}}
::: {{USS|Seal|SS-183}}
::: {{USS|Snapper|SS-185}}
::: {{USS|Stingray|SS-186}}
::: {{USS|Sturgeon|SS-187}}
:: 9 [[Sargo-class submarine|''Sargo''-class]] (8 torpedo tubes, 21 knots surfaced)
::: {{USS|Sargo|SS-188}}
::: {{USS|Saury|SS-189}}
::: {{USS|Spearfish|SS-190}}
::: {{USS|Sculpin|SS-191}}
::: {{USS|Swordfish|SS-193}}
::: {{USS|Seadragon|SS-194}}
::: {{USS|Sealion|SS-195}} – scuttled 25 Dec 1941 after damage 10 Dec 1941; 5 crewmen lost in war<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oneternalpatrol.com/uss-sealion-195.htm|title=On Eternal Patrol – USS Sealion (SS-195)|website=www.oneternalpatrol.com}}</ref>
::: {{USS|Searaven|SS-196}}
::: {{USS|Seawolf|SS-197}}
: '''Patrol Wing 10''' (Cavite Naval Base, Luzon, Philippines)
:: Capt. [[Frank Dechant Wagner|Frank D. Wagner]]
::: VP-101
::: VP-102
::: destroyer {{USS|Childs|DD-241}}
::: destroyer {{USS|William B. Preston|DD-344}}
::: minesweeper {{USS|Heron|AM-10}}
: In December 1941, naval forces were augmented by the following:
:: schooner [[USS Lanikai|USS ''Lanikai'']]
:: [[Station Cast]] US Navy Code breaking on the Japanese military; evacuated to Australia 1942
: In addition 2 district patrol craft ''YP-16'' and ''YP-17'' and about 70 miscellaneous district craft were lost in the Philippines in 1942.
: '''China [[Yangtze Patrol]]'''
:: Rear Admiral [[William A. Glassford]]
::: gunboat {{USS|Asheville|PG-21}} – lost 3 Mar 1942; 161 crew lost
::: gunboat {{USS|Tulsa|PG-22}}
::: gunboat {{USS|Luzon|PG-47}} – scuttled 6 May 1942 but salvaged by the Japanese; sunk in the Philippines by {{USS|Narwhal|SS-167}} on 3 Mar 1944
::: river gunboat {{USS|Wake|PR-3}} – captured 8 Dec 1941
::: river gunboat {{USS|Oahu|PR-6}} – sunk 5 May 1942
::: river gunboat {{USS|Mindanao|PR-8}} – lost 2 May 1942
: '''Other US Navy losses'''
:: armored cruiser {{USS|New York|ACR-2}} scuttled December 1941
:: minesweeper {{USS|Finch|AM-9}} ran out of fuel and abandoned March, sunk by Japanese on 9 Apr 1942; salvaged as IJN ''Patrol Boat 103'', sunk in 1945
:: minesweeper {{USS|Bittern|AM-36}} scuttled 10 Dec 1941
:: minesweeper {{USS|Pigeon|ASR-6}} sunk 4 May 1942
:: minesweeper {{USS|Quail|AM-15}} scuttled following damage by air and surface attack 5 May 1942
:: submarine tender {{USS|Canopus|AS-9}} scuttled 10 Apr 1942 (548 crew served with [[4th Marine Regiment]] 212 KIA/MIA)
:: fleet tug {{USS|Genesee|AT-55}} scuttled 5 May 1942 but salvaged by the Japanese; sunk on 5 Nov 1944
:: seaplane tender {{USS|Langley|AV-3}} escaped to Dutch East Indies and Australia; lost 8 May 1942
:: survey ship [[USC&GSS Pathfinder (1899–1941)|USC&GSS ''Research'']] beached 30 Jan 1942
===United States Marine Corps===
* [[4th Marine Regiment]] (Commander Colonel [[Samuel L. Howard]]) stationed at Corregidor; consisted of 142 different organizations:
** USMC: 72 officers; 1,368 enlisted
** USN: 37 officers; 848 enlisted
** USAAC/PA: 111 officers; 1,455 enlisted
4th Marines Casualties were 315 killed/15 MIA/357 WIA in the Philippine Campaign.[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/I/USMC-I-IV-3.html] 105 Marines were captured on Bataan and 1,283 captured on Corregidor of whom 490 did not survive.[http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USMC/V/USMC-V-A.html#Philippines]
===Miscellaneous===
{{See also|Philippine Department}}
Harbor Defenses, April 15, 1942 (Maj. Gen. [[George F. Moore (US Army officer)|George F. Moore]]):
* US Army: 5,012
* US Navy: 2,158
* USMC: 1,617
* Philippine Scouts: 1,298
* Philippine Army: 1,818
* Philippine Navy: 400
* US Civilians: 343
* Civilians (other): 2,082
* [[Army Nurse Corps (United States)|Army Nurse Corps]], [[United States Navy Nurse Corps|Navy Nurse Corps]]: 78 ("[[Angels of Bataan]]")
==See also==
* [[Day of Valor]]
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
== References ==
* {{Cite book
| last       = Bartsch
| first      = William H.
| year       = 2003
| title      = 8 December 1941: MacArthur's Pearl Harbor
| publisher  = Texas A&M University Press
| location   = College Station
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Belote
| first      = James H.
| author2    = William M. Belote
| year       = 1967
| title      = Corregidor: The Saga of a Fortress
| publisher  = Harper & Row
| asin=  B0006BOBRQ
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Berhow
| first      = Mark A.
| author2    = Terrance C. McGovern
| year       = 2003
| title      = American Defenses of Corregidor and Manila Bay 1898–1945 (Fortress)
| publisher  = Osprey Publishing Ltd
| isbn       = 1-84176-427-2
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Burton
| first      = John
| year       = 2006
| title      = Fortnight of Infamy: The Collapse of Allied Airpower West of Pearl Harbor
| publisher  = US Naval Institute Press
| isbn       = 1-59114-096-X
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Connaughton
| first      = Richard
| author-link = Richard Connaughton
| year       = 2001
| title      = MacArthur and Defeat in the Philippines
| url       = https://archive.org/details/macarthurdefeati00conn
| url-access = registration
| publisher  = The Overlook Press
| location   = New York
| isbn = 9781585671182
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Drea
| first      = Edward J.
| year       = 1998
| title      = In the Service of the Emperor: Essays on the Imperial Japanese Army
| publisher  = University of Nebraska Press
| location   = Nebraska
| isbn       = 0-8032-1708-0
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Edmunds
| first      = Walter D.
| year       = 1951
| title      = They Fought With What They Had: The Story of the Army Air Forces in the Southwest Pacific, 1941–1942
| url        = https://books.google.com/books?id=KCG-LP5R3QcC
| publisher  = Little, Brown and Company (1992 reprint: Center For Air Force History)
| isbn       = 978-1442142596
| location   = College Station
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Gordon
| first      = John
| year       = 2011
| title      = Fighting for MacArthur: The Navy and Marine Corps' Desperate Defense of the Philippines
| publisher  = Naval Institute Press
| isbn       = 978-1-61251-057-6
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Jackson
| first      = Charles
| author2    = Bruce H. Norton
| year       = 2003
| title      = I Am Alive!: A United States Marine's Story of Survival in a World war II Japanese POW Camp
| publisher  = Presidio Press
| isbn       = 0-345-44911-8
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Mallonee
| first      = Richard C.
| year       = 2003
| title      = Battle for Bataan: An Eyewitness Account
| publisher  = I Books
| isbn       = 0-7434-7450-3
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Martin
| first      = Adrian R.
| year       = 2008
| title      = Operation Plum: The Ill-Fated 27th Bombardment Group and the Fight for the Western Pacific
| publisher  = Texas A&M University Press
| isbn       = 978-1-60344-019-6
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Mellnik
| first      = Stephen Michael
| year       = 1981
| title      = Philippine War Diary, 1939–1945
| publisher  = Van Nostrand Reinhold
| isbn       = 0-442-21258-5
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Morison
| first      = Samuel Eliot
| author-link = Samuel Eliot Morison
| orig-year   = 1958
| year       = 2001
| title      = The Rising Sun in the Pacific 1931 – April 1942'', vol. 3 of ''[[History of United States Naval Operations in World War II]]
| publisher  = Castle Books
| isbn       = 0-7858-1304-7
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Morris
| first      = Eric
| year       = 2000
| title      = Corregidor: The American Alamo of World War II
| publisher  = Cooper Square Press
| isbn       = 0-8154-1085-9
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Nish
| first      = Ian Hill
| year       = 2002
| title      = Japanese Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period
| publisher  = Praeger
| isbn       = 978-0-275-94791-0
| url        = https://books.google.com/books?id=QJCybygKzJIC
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Rottman
| first      = Gordon L.
| year       = 2005
| title      = Japanese Army in World War II: Conquest of the Pacific 1941–42
| publisher  = Osprey Publishing
| isbn       = 978-1-84176-789-5
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Schultz
| first      = Duane
| year       = 1981
| title      = Hero of Bataan: The story of General Johnathan M Wainwright
| publisher  = St Martin's Press
| asin       = B000UXDJJG
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Waldron
| first      = Ben
| author2    = Emily Burneson
| year       = 2006
| title      = Corregidor: From Paradise to Hell!
| publisher  = Trafford Publishing
| isbn       = 1-4120-2109-X
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Whitman
| first      = John W.
| year       = 1990
| title      = Bataan: Our Last Ditch: The Bataan Campaign, 1942
| publisher  = Hippocrene Books
| isbn       = 0-87052-877-7
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Young
| first      = Donald J.
| year       = 1992
| title      = The Battle of Bataan: A History of the 90 Day Siege and Eventual Surrender of 75,000 Filipino and United States Troops to the Japanese in World War
| publisher  = McFarland & Company
| isbn       = 0-89950-757-3
}}
* Zaloga, Steven J. ''Japanese Tanks 1939–45''. Osprey, 2007. {{ISBN|978-1-84603-091-8}}.
==Further reading==
* {{Cite book
| last       = Bartsch
| first      = William H.
| year       = 1995
| title      = Doomed at the Start: American Pursuit Pilots in the Philippines, 1941–1942
| publisher  = Texas A&M University Press
| isbn       = 978-0-89096-679-2
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Chun
| first      = Clayton
| year       = 2012
| title      = The Fall of the Philippines 1941–42
| publisher  = Osprey Publishing; Osprey Campaign Series No. 243
| isbn       = 978-1-84908-609-7
}}
* {{Cite book
| last       = Martin
| first      = Adrian R.
| year       = 2010
| title      = Operation PLUM: The Ill-fated 27th Bombardment Group and the Fight for the Western Pacific
| publisher  = Texas A&M University Press
| isbn       = 978-1-60344-184-1
}}
* {{Cite book
|title        = Command Decisions
|editor       = Kent Roberts Greenfield
|url          = http://www.history.army.mil/books/70-7_0.htm
|publisher    = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]
|year         = 1960
|id           = CMH Pub 70-7
|lccn         = 59060007
|chapter      = Chapter 6: The Decision to Withdraw to Bataan
|first        = Louis
|last         = Morton
|chapter-url  = http://www.history.army.mil/books/70-7_06.htm
|access-date  = June 18, 2010
|archive-date = December 30, 2007
|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20071230145455/http://www.history.army.mil/books/70-7_0.htm
|url-status   = dead
}}
* {{Cite book
|url          = http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_Contents.htm
|first        = Louis
|last         = Morton
|year         = 1953
|title        = The Fall of the Philippines
|series       = U.S. Army in World War II: The War in the Pacific
|publisher    = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]
|location     = Washington, D.C.
|id           = CMH Pub 5-2
|lccn         = 53063678
|access-date  = May 4, 2008
|archive-date = January 8, 2012
|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20120108061554/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/5-2/5-2_Contents.htm
|url-status   = dead
}} – full text
* {{Cite book
|first        = Jennifer L.
|last         = Bailey
|url          = http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/pi/PI.htm
|title        = Philippine Islands
|series       = The U.S. Army Campaigns of World War II (brochure)
|publisher    = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]
|id           = CMH Pub 72–3
|year         = 2003
|access-date  = January 29, 2005
|archive-date = May 23, 2011
|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20110523005633/http://www.history.army.mil/brochures/pi/PI.htm
|url-status   = dead
}}
* {{Cite book
|year         = 1994
|url          = http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V2%20P1/macarthurv2.htm#contents
|chapter      = Japanese Operations in the Southwest Pacific Area, Volume II – Part I
|title        = Reports of General MacArthur
|publisher    = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]
|access-date  = December 8, 2006
|id           = 13-1
|archive-date = January 25, 2008
|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20080125072601/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V2%20P1/macarthurv2.htm#contents
|url-status   = dead
}}
* {{Cite book
|url          = http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V1/ch01.htm
|chapter      = Volume I, Chapter 1 Japanese Offensive in the Pacific
|title        = Reports of General MacArthur
|publisher    = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]
|access-date  = May 4, 2008
|archive-date = April 24, 2021
|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20210424214657/https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V1/ch01.htm
|url-status   = dead
}} Report by MacArthur's staff
* {{Cite book
| last       = Stevens
| first      = Peter F.
| year       = 2011
| title      = The Twilight Riders: The Last Charge of the 26th Cavalry
| publisher  = Lyons Press
| isbn       = 978-0-7627-6485-3
}}
* {{cite book
| last       = Cooper
| first      = [[Colonel (United States)|Colonel]] Wibb E.
| title      = Medical Department Activities in the Philippines from 1941 to May 1942, and Including Medical Activities in the Japanese Prisoner of War Camps
| url        = http://www.mansell.com/pow_resources/camplists/philippines/cooper_med_report.html#GENERAL_REVIEW
| year       = 1946
| publisher  = Office of the Sergeon General
}}
* {{cite web
|url          = http://www.history.army.mil/documents/zambo.htm
|title        = Japanese Landings at Zamboanga, 2 March 1942
|author       = General Headquarters, Far East Command
|date         = July 20, 1951
|website      = Center of Military History
|publisher    = United States Army
|access-date  = September 25, 2008
|archive-date = January 5, 2009
|archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20090105115649/http://www.history.army.mil/documents/zambo.htm
|url-status   = dead
}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Battle of the Philippines (1941-42)}}
*{{Cite web
| url        = http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=46
| title      = Invasion of the Philippines
| work       = WW2DB
| author     = C. Peter Chen
| access-date = May 31, 2005
}}
* {{Cite web
| url        = http://www.pacificwaranimated.com/Philippines.html
| title        = Animated History of The Fall of the Philippines
| publisher        = HistoryAnimated.com
| access-date        = January 7, 2011
| archive-url        = https://web.archive.org/web/20110715032352/http://www.pacificwaranimated.com/Philippines.html
| archive-date        = July 15, 2011
| url-status        = dead
}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150915085111/http://reta.nmsu.edu/bataan/index2.html Battle for Bataan]
{{Dec41attacks}}
{{World War II}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Campaign, Philippines}}
[[Category:South West Pacific theatre of World War II]]
[[Category:Military history of the Philippines during World War II]]
[[Category:1941 in the Philippines]]
[[Category:1942 in the Philippines]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps in World War II]]
[[Category:Campaigns of World War II|P]]
[[Category:Invasions of the Philippines]]
[[Category:Invasions by Japan]]
[[Category:World War II invasions]]
[[Category:1941 in military history]]
[[Category:1942 in military history]]
[[Category:Amphibious operations of World War II]]
[[Category:Japan–Philippines military relations]]