View source for Pietism

{{short description|Movement within Lutheranism}}
{{Lutheranism}}
{{Protestantism}}
'''Pietism''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|aɪ|.|ɪ|t|ɪ|z|əm}}), also known as '''Pietistic Lutheranism''', is a movement within [[Lutheranism]] that combines its emphasis on biblical doctrine with an emphasis on individual [[piety]] and living a holy [[Christianity|Christian]] life.<ref name="Backman1976">{{cite book |last1=Backman |first1=Milton Vaughn |title=Christian Churches of America: Origins and Beliefs |date=1976 |publisher=[[Brigham Young University Press]] |page=75 |language=English |quote=Pietistic Lutheranism was a form of belief and practice which emphasized experience in the Christian life and championed the importance of Christian action and growth in holiness.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pietism|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pietism |language=en |quote=It emphasized personal faith and sanctity against the main Lutheran church’s perceived stress on doctrine and theology over Christian living.}}</ref>
Although the movement is aligned with Lutheranism, it has had a tremendous impact on [[Protestantism]] worldwide, particularly in North America and Europe. Pietism originated in modern [[Germany]] in the late 17th century with the work of [[Philipp Spener]], a Lutheran theologian whose emphasis on personal transformation through spiritual rebirth and renewal, individual devotion, and piety laid the foundations for the movement. Although Spener did not directly advocate the [[Quietism (Christian contemplation)|quietistic]], legalistic, and semi-separatist practices of Pietism, they were more or less involved in the positions he assumed or the practices which he encouraged.
Pietism spread from Germany to Switzerland, the rest of German-speaking Europe, and to Scandinavia and the Baltics, where it was heavily influential, leaving a permanent mark on the region's dominant Lutheranism, with figures like [[Hans Nielsen Hauge]] in [[Norway]], [[Peter Spaak]] and [[Carl Olof Rosenius]] in [[Sweden]], [[Katarina Asplund]] in [[Finland]], and [[Barbara von Krüdener]] in the Baltics, and to the rest of Europe. It was further taken to North America, primarily by German and Scandinavian immigrants. There, it influenced Protestants of other ethnic and other (non-Lutheran) [[Christian denomination|denominational]] backgrounds, contributing to the 18th-century foundation of [[evangelicalism]], an [[Interdenominationalism|interdenominational]] movement within Protestantism that today has some 300 million followers.
In the middle of the 19th century, [[Lars Levi Laestadius]] spearheaded a Pietist revival in Scandinavia that upheld what came to be known as [[Laestadian Lutheranism|Laestadian Lutheran theology]], which is adhered to today by the [[Conservative Laestadianism|Laestadian Lutheran Churches]] as well as by several congregations within other mainstream Lutheran Churches, such as the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland]].<ref name="Holmquist1981">{{cite book|title=They Chose Minnesota: A Survey of the State's Ethnic Groups|last=Holmquist|first=June Drenning|date=1 January 1981|publisher=Minnesota Historical Society Press|isbn=9780873511551|page=306|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Kivisto2014"/> The [[Eielsen Synod]] and [[Association of Free Lutheran Congregations]] are Pietist Lutheran bodies that emerged in the [[Haugean movement|Pietist Lutheran movement in Norway]], which was spearheaded by [[Hans Nielsen Hauge]].<ref name="Gritsch1994">{{cite book |last1=Gritsch |first1=Eric W. |title=Fortress Introduction to Lutheranism |url=https://archive.org/details/fortressintroduc0000grit |url-access=registration |date=1994 |publisher=Fortress Press |isbn=9781451407778 |language=en}}</ref> In 1900, the [[Church of the Lutheran Brethren]] was founded and it adheres to Pietist Lutheran theology, emphasizing a [[Born again|personal conversion experience]].<ref name="Tweton1988">{{cite book |last1=Tweton |first1=D. Jerome |title=The New Deal at the Grass Roots: Programs for the People in Otter Tail County, Minnesota |date=1988 |publisher=Minnesota Historical Society Press |isbn=9780873512336 |page=7 |language=en}}</ref> The [[Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus]], a Lutheran denomination with a largely Pietistic following with some [[Presbyterian]] and [[Pentecostal]] influence and primarily based in [[Ethiopia]] and among the [[Ethiopians|Ethiopian diaspora]], is the largest individual member Lutheran [[Christian denomination|denomination]] within the [[Lutheran World Federation]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=M |first=Eide, Øyvind |date=1929–1979 |title=Tumsa, Gudina |url=https://dacb.org/stories/ethiopia/gudina-tumsa/ |access-date=2022-03-20 |website=Dictionary of African Christian Biography |language=en}}</ref>
Whereas Pietistic Lutherans stayed within the Lutheran tradition, adherents of a related movement known as [[Radical Pietism]] believed in [[Nonconformity to the world|separating]] from the established Lutheran Churches.<ref name="Granquist2015">{{cite book |last1=Granquist |first1=Mark Alan |title=Lutherans in America: A New History |date=2015 |publisher=Augsburg Fortress Publishers |isbn=9781451472288 |language=en}}</ref> Some of the theological tenets of Pietism also influenced other traditions of [[Protestantism]], inspiring the [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] priest [[John Wesley]] to begin the [[Methodism|Methodist]] movement and [[Alexander Mack]] to begin the [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] [[Schwarzenau Brethren]] movement.
The word ''pietism'' (in lower case spelling)<ref name="Dictionary.com"/> is also used to refer to an "emphasis on devotional experience and practices", or an "affectation of devotion",<ref name="Merriam Webster">{{cite web |title=Definition of pietism |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pietist |website=Merriam Webster Dictionary |access-date=10 September 2021}}</ref><ref name="Dictionary.com">{{cite web |title=Pietism |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/pietistic |website=Dictionary.com |access-date=10 September 2021}}</ref> "pious sentiment, especially of an exaggerated or affected nature",<ref name="Lexico">{{cite web |title=pietism |url=https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/pietism |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910192042/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/pietism |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 10, 2021 |website=Lexico |access-date=10 September 2021}}</ref> not necessarily connected with Lutheranism or even Christianity.
==Beliefs==
Pietistic Lutherans meet together in [[conventicle]]s, "apart from [[Divine Service (Lutheran)|Divine Service]] in order to mutually encourage piety".<ref name="Dawn2018">{{cite web|url=https://witness.lcms.org/2018/piety-vs-pietism/|title=Piety vs. Pietism|last=Dawn|first=Russell P.|date=15 March 2018|publisher=[[Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod]]|language=en|access-date=27 September 2018}}</ref> They believe "that any true Christian could point back in his or her life to an inner struggle with sin that culminated in a crisis and ultimately a decision to start a new, Christ-centered life."<ref name="Dawn2018"/> Pietistic Lutherans emphasize following "biblical divine commands of believers to live a holy life and to strive for holy living, or [[sanctification]]".<ref name="Granquist2015b">{{cite book|title=Scandinavian Pietists: Spiritual Writings from 19th-Century Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and Finland|last=Granquist|first=Mark A.|publisher=Paulist Press|year=2015|isbn=9781587684982|page=13|language=en}}</ref>
== By country ==
=== Germany ===
[[File:Fünfbrüderbild.jpg|thumb|The "Five Brothers of Württemberg Pietism": Johannes Schnaitmann (1767–1847), Anton Egeler (1770–1850), Johann Martin Schäffer (1763–1851), Immanuel Gottlieb Kolb (1784–1859) and [[Johann Michael Hahn]]&nbsp;(1758–1819)]]
Pietism did not die out in the 18th century, but was alive and active in the American {{Lang|de|Deutscher Evangelischer Kirchenverein des Westens}} (German Evangelical Church Society of the West, based in [[Gravois Township, St. Louis County, Missouri|Gravois, Missouri]], later [[German Evangelical Synod of North America]] and still later the [[Evangelical and Reformed Church]], a precursor of the [[United Church of Christ]].) The church president from 1901 to 1914 was a pietist named Jakob Pister.<ref>A discussion of some of the earlier pietist influence in the Evangelical and Reformed church can be found in Dunn et al., "A History of the Evangelical and Reformed Church" Christian Education Press, Philadelphia, 1962. Further commentary can be found by Carl Viehe under Pietism, Illinois Trails, Washington County.</ref> Some vestiges of Pietism were still present in 1957 at the time of the formation of the United Church of Christ. In the 21st century Pietism is still alive in groups inside the [[Evangelical Church in Germany]]. These groups are called {{Lang|de|Landeskirchliche Gemeinschaften}} and emerged in the second half of the 19th century in the so-called {{Lang|de|Gemeinschaftsbewegung}}.
The 19th century saw a revival of confessional Lutheran doctrine, known as the [[Neo-Lutheranism|neo-Lutheran movement]]. This movement focused on a reassertion of the identity of Lutherans as a distinct group within the broader community of [[Christianity|Christians]], with a renewed focus on the [[Book of Concord|Lutheran Confessions]] as a key source of Lutheran doctrine. Associated with these changes was a renewed focus on traditional doctrine and liturgy, which paralleled the growth of [[Anglo-Catholicism]] in England.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Scherer, James A. |title=The Triumph of Confessionalism in Nineteenth-Century German Lutheran Missions |journal=Missio Apostolica |year=1993 |volume=2 |pages=71–78 |url=http://www.lsfmissiology.org/Essays/SchererTriumphofConfessionalism.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060112180934/http://www.lsfmissiology.org/Essays/SchererTriumphofConfessionalism.pdf |archive-date=January 12, 2006 }} This is an extract from Scherer's 1968 Ph.D. thesis, "Mission and Unity in Lutheranism". Scherer was Professor of World Mission and Church History at the Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago until his retirement.</ref>
===Scandinavia===
[[File:Pietism.JPG|thumb|upright|Pietistic Lutheran frugality, humility, restraint, sense of duty and order have been strong cultural and religious influences in Scandinavia.]]
In [[Denmark]], Pietistic Lutheranism became popular in 1703.<ref name="Petersen2011">{{cite web|url=http://www.blts.edu/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/WWP-Pietism.pdf|title=Warm Winds From the South: The Spread of Pietism to Scandinavian Lutherans|last=Petersen|first=Wilhelm W.|year=2011|publisher=Bethany Lutheran Theological Seminary|language=en|access-date=27 September 2018}}</ref> There, the faithful were organized into [[conventicles]] that "met for prayer and Bible reading".<ref name="Petersen2011"/>
Pietistic Lutheranism entered [[Sweden]] in the 1600s after the writings of Johann Arndt, Philipp Jakob Spener, and August Hermann Francke became popular.<ref name="CarlsonGehrz2012">{{cite book|title=The Pietist Impulse in Christianity|author=Collins Winn|first=Christopher T.|last2=Gerhz|first2=Christopher|last3=Holst|first3=Eric|last4=Carlson|first4=G. William|last5=Heide|first5=Gail|date=25 October 2012|publisher=Casemate Publishers|isbn=9780227680001|page=200|language=en}}</ref> Pietistic Lutheranism gained patronage under [[Erik Benzelius the younger|Archbishop Erik Benzelius]], who encouraged the Pietistic Lutheran practices.<ref name="CarlsonGehrz2012"/>
[[Laestadian Lutheranism]], a form of Pietistic Lutheranism, continues to flourish in Scandinavia, where [[Church of Sweden]] priest [[Lars Levi Laestadius]] spearheaded the revival in the 19th century.<ref name="Holmquist1981"/>
==History==
===Forerunners===
As the forerunners of the Pietists in the strict sense, certain voices had been heard bewailing the shortcomings of the church and advocating a revival of practical and devout Christianity. Amongst them were the [[Christian mysticism|Christian mystic]] [[Jakob Böhme]] (Behmen); [[Johann Arndt]], whose work, ''True Christianity'', became widely known and appreciated; [[Heinrich Müller (theologian)|Heinrich Müller]], who described the [[baptismal font|font]], the [[pulpit]], the [[Confession (religion)|confessional]], and the [[altar]] as "the four dumb idols of the Lutheran Church"; the theologian [[Johann Valentin Andrea]], court chaplain of the Landgrave of Hesse; Schuppius, who sought to restore the Bible to its place in the pulpit; and [[Theophil Großgebauer|Theophilus Grossgebauer]] (d. 1661) of [[Rostock]], who from his pulpit and by his writings raised what he called "the alarm cry of a watchman in [[Zion|Sion]]".
===Founding===
[[File:Philipp Jakob Spener.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Philipp Spener]] (1635–1705), the "Father of Pietism", is considered the founder of the movement.]]
The direct originator of the movement was [[Philipp Spener]]. Born at [[Rappoltsweiler]] in Alsace, now in France, on 13 January 1635, trained by a devout godmother who used books of devotion like Arndt's ''True Christianity'', Spener was convinced of the necessity of a moral and religious reformation within German Lutheranism. He studied theology at [[Strasbourg]], where the professors at the time (and especially Sebastian Schmidt) were more inclined to "practical" Christianity than to theological disputation. He afterwards spent a year in [[Geneva]], and was powerfully influenced by the strict moral life and rigid ecclesiastical discipline prevalent there, and also by the preaching and the piety of the [[Waldensian]] professor Antoine Leger and the converted [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] preacher [[Jean de Labadie]].
During a stay in [[Tübingen]], Spener read Grossgebauer's ''Alarm Cry'', and in 1666 he entered upon his first pastoral charge at [[Frankfurt]] with a profound opinion that the Christian life within Evangelical Lutheranism was being sacrificed to zeal for rigid [[Lutheran orthodoxy]]. Pietism, as a distinct movement in the German Church, began with religious meetings at Spener's house (''collegia pietatis'') where he repeated his sermons, expounded passages of the [[New Testament]], and induced those present to join in conversation on religious questions. In 1675, Spener published his ''Pia desideria'' or ''Earnest Desire for a Reform of the True Evangelical Church'', the title giving rise to the term "Pietists". This was originally a pejorative term given to the adherents of the movement by its enemies as a form of ridicule, like that of "Methodists" somewhat later in England.
In ''Pia desideria'', Spener made six proposals as the best means of restoring the life of the church:
# The earnest and thorough study of the Bible in private meetings, ''ecclesiolae in ecclesia'' ("little churches within the church")
# The Christian priesthood being universal, the laity should share in the spiritual government of the church
# A knowledge of Christianity must be attended by the practice of it as its indispensable sign and supplement
# Instead of merely didactic, and often bitter, attacks on the heterodox and unbelievers, a sympathetic and kindly treatment of them
# A reorganization of the theological training of the universities, giving more prominence to the devotional life
# A different style of preaching, namely, in the place of pleasing rhetoric, the implanting of Christianity in the inner or new man, the soul of which is faith, and its effects the fruits of life
This work produced a great impression throughout Germany. While large numbers of [[Lutheran Orthodoxy|orthodox Lutheran]] theologians and pastors were deeply offended by Spener's book, many other pastors immediately adopted Spener's proposals.
===Early leaders===
[[File:A Tidemand-Haugianerne.jpg|thumb|[[Haugean]] Pietist [[Conventicle]]]]
In 1686 Spener accepted an appointment to the court-chaplaincy at [[Dresden]], which opened to him a wider though more difficult sphere of labor. In [[Leipzig]], a society of young theologians was formed under his influence for the learned study and devout application of the Bible. Three magistrates belonging to that society, one of whom was [[August Hermann Francke]], subsequently the founder of the famous orphanage at [[Halle, Saxony-Anhalt|Halle]] (1695), commenced courses of expository lectures on the Scriptures of a practical and devotional character, and in the [[German language]], which were zealously frequented by both students and townsmen. The lectures aroused the ill-will of the other theologians and pastors of Leipzig, and Francke and his friends left the city, and with the aid of [[Christian Thomasius]] and Spener founded the new [[University of Halle]]. The theological chairs in the new university were filled in complete conformity with Spener's proposals. The main difference between the new Pietistic Lutheran school and the orthodox Lutherans arose from the Pietists' conception of Christianity as chiefly consisting in a change of heart and consequent holiness of life. Orthodox Lutherans rejected this viewpoint as a gross simplification, stressing the need for the church and for sound theological underpinnings.
Spener died in 1705, but the movement, guided by Francke and fertilized from Halle, spread through the whole of Middle and North Germany. Among its greatest achievements, apart from the philanthropic institutions founded at Halle, were the revival of the [[Moravian Church]] in 1727 by [[Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf|Count von Zinzendorf]], formerly a pupil in Francke's School for Young Noblemen in Halle, and the establishment of Protestant missions. In particular, [[Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg]] (10 July 1682 – 23 February 1719) became the first Pietist missionary to India.
Spener stressed the necessity of a new birth and separation of Christians from the world (see [[Asceticism]]). Many Pietists maintained that the new birth always had to be preceded by agonies of repentance, and that only a regenerated theologian could teach theology. The whole school shunned all common worldly amusements, such as dancing, the theatre, and public games. Some believe this led to a new form of justification by works. Its ''ecclesiolae in ecclesia'' also weakened the power and meaning of church organization. These Pietistic attitudes caused a counter-movement at the beginning of the 18th century; one leader was [[Valentin Ernst Löscher]], [[superintendent (ecclesiastical)|superintendent]] at Dresden.
[[File:Mose Lambsen fparm.jpg|thumb|Title page of the 1743 ''Mose och Lambsens wisor''. This edition had 136 hymns, which were not numbered, although most had instructions as to which melody the text should be sung. For a complete list of hymns, see the Swedish article on ''[[:sv:Mose och Lambsens wisor|Mose och Lambsens wisor]].'' The title is a reference to [[:s:Bible (King James)/Revelation#Chapter 15|Revelation 15]]:3, where those who triumph over the beast sing the songs of Moses and the Lamb.]]
===Establishment reaction===
Authorities within state-endorsed Churches were suspicious of pietist doctrine which they often viewed as a social danger, as it "seemed either to generate an excess of evangelical fervor and so disturb the public tranquility or to promote a mysticism so nebulous as to obscure the imperatives of morality. A movement which cultivated religious feeling almost as an end itself". While some pietists (such as Francis Magny) held that "mysticism and the moral law went together", for others (like his pupil Françoise-Louise de la Tour) "pietist mysticism did less to reinforce the moral law than to take its place… the principle of 'guidance by inner light' was often a signal to follow the most intense of her inner sentiments… the supremacy of feeling over reason".<ref name= "Cranston">{{cite book|title=[[Jean-Jacques: The Early Life and Work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 1712–1754]]|author=Maurice Cranston|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1982}}</ref> Religious authorities could bring pressure on pietists, such as when they brought some of Magny's followers before the local [[Consistory (Protestantism)|consistory]] to answer questions about their unorthodox views<ref>{{cite book|title=Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Restless Genius|author=Leo Damrosch|publisher=Mariner Books|year=2005}}</ref> or when they banished Magny from [[Vevey]] for heterodoxy in 1713.<ref name="Cranston"/> Likewise, pietism challenged the orthodoxy via new media and formats: Periodical journals gained importance versus the former pasquills and single thesis, traditional [[disputation]] was replaced by competitive debating, which tried to gain new knowledge instead of defending orthodox scholarship.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pietismus und Aufklärung: theologische Polemik und die Kommunikationsreform der Wissenschaft am Ende des 17. Jahrhunderts|last=Gierl|first=Martin|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht|year=1997|language=de|trans-title=Pietism and enlightenment, theological polemic and the reform of science communication end of the 17. century}}</ref>
===Hymnody===
{{Main|Hymnody of continental Europe#Pietism}}
===Later history===
[[File:Der breite und der schmale Weg 2008.jpg|thumb|left|upright|''The Broad and the Narrow Way'', a popular German Pietist painting, 1866]]
As a distinct movement, Pietism had its greatest strength by the middle of the 18th century; its very individualism in fact helped to prepare the way for the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] (''Aufklärung''), which took the church in an altogether different direction. Yet some claim that Pietism contributed largely to the revival of Biblical studies in Germany and to making religion once more an affair of the heart and of life and not merely of the intellect.{{Citation needed|date=November 2012}}
It likewise gave a new emphasis to the role of the laity in the church. Rudolf Sohm claimed that "It was the last great surge of the waves of the ecclesiastical movement begun by the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]; it was the completion and the final form of the Protestantism created by the Reformation. Then came a time when another intellectual power took possession of the minds of men." [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]] of the German [[Confessing Church]] framed the same characterization in less positive terms when he called Pietism the last attempt to save Christianity as a religion: Given that for him religion was a negative term, more or less an opposite to [[revelation]], this constitutes a rather scathing judgment. Bonhoeffer denounced the basic aim of Pietism, to produce a "desired piety" in a person, as unbiblical.
Pietism is considered the major influence that led to the creation of the "[[Prussian Union (Evangelical Christian Church)|Evangelical Church of the Union]]" in [[Prussia]] in 1817. The King of Prussia ordered the Lutheran and Reformed churches in Prussia to unite; they took the name "Evangelical" as a name both groups had previously identified with. This union movement spread through many German lands in the 1800s. Pietism, with its looser attitude toward confessional theology, had opened the churches to the possibility of uniting. The unification of the two branches of German Protestantism sparked the [[Prussian Union (Evangelical Christian Church)#Quarrels over the union|Schism of the Old Lutherans]]. Many Lutherans, called [[Old Lutherans]] formed [[free church]]es or emigrated to the United States and [[Australia]], where they formed bodies that would later become the [[Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod]] and the [[Lutheran Church of Australia]], respectively. (Many immigrants to America, who agreed with the union movement, formed German Evangelical Lutheran and Reformed congregations, later combined into the [[Evangelical Synod of North America]], which is now a part of the [[United Church of Christ]].)
[[File:SUVISEURATELLTA 2.jpg|thumb|[[Summer services]] are a feature of [[Laestadian Lutheran]] piety.]]
In the middle of the 19th century, [[Lars Levi Laestadius]] spearheaded a Pietist revival in Scandinavia that upheld what came to be known as [[Laestadian Lutheranism|Laestadian Lutheran theology]], which is heralded today by the [[Laestadian Lutheran Church]] as well as by several congregations within mainstream Lutheran Churches, such as the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland]] and the [[Church of Sweden]].<ref name="Holmquist1981"/><ref name="ElgánScobbie2015">{{cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Sweden|last1=Elgán|first1=Elisabeth|last2=Scobbie|first2=Irene|date=17 September 2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=9781442250710|page=159|language=en}}</ref> After encountering a [[Sami people|Sami]] woman who experienced a conversion, Laestadius had a similar experience that "transformed his life and defined his calling".<ref name="Kivisto2014">{{cite book|title=Religion and Immigration: Migrant Faiths in North America and Western Europe|last=Kivisto|first=Peter|date=16 October 2014|publisher=Wiley|isbn=9780745686660|page=109|language=en}}</ref> As such, Laestadius "spend the rest of his life advancing his idea of Lutheran pietism, focusing his energies on marginalized groups in the northernmost regions of the Nordic countries".<ref name="Kivisto2014"/> Laestadius called on his followers to embrace their Lutheran identity and as a result, Laestadian Lutherans have remained a part of the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland]], the [[national Church]] in that country, with some Laestadian Lutherans being consecrated as [[bishop]]s.<ref name="Kivisto2014"/> In the United States, [[Laestadianism in the United States|Laestadian Lutheran Churches]] were formed for Laestadian Pietists.<ref name="Kivisto2014"/> Laestadian Lutherans observe the [[Lutheran sacraments]], holding classical Lutheran theology on [[infant baptism]] and the [[real presence of Christ in the Eucharist]], and also heavily emphasize [[Confession (Lutheran Church)|Confession]].<ref name="Lamport2017">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation|last=Lamport|first=Mark A.|date=31 August 2017|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=9781442271593|page=406|language=en}}</ref> Uniquely, Laestadian Lutherans "discourage watching television, attending movies, dancing, playing card games or games of chance, and drinking alcoholic beverages", as well as avoiding birth control – Laestadian Lutheran families usually have four to ten children.<ref name="Lamport2017"/> Laestadian Lutherans gather in a central location for weeks at a time for [[Summer services|summer revival services]] in which many young adults find their future spouses.<ref name="Lamport2017"/>
[[R. J. Hollingdale]], who translated [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]'s ''[[Thus Spake Zarathustra]]'' into English, argued that a number of the themes of the work (especially ''[[amor fati]]'') originated in the Lutheran Pietism of Nietzsche's childhood – Nietzsche's father, [[Carl Ludwig Nietzsche]], was a Lutheran pastor who supported the Pietist movement.<ref name="Nietzsche1974">{{cite book|author=Nietzsche|first=Friedrich|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9VxKgui0mEC&pg=PT30|title=Thus Spoke Zarathustra|date=28 February 1974|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-0-14-190432-0|pages=30|translator-last=Hollingdale|translator-first=R. J.|author-link=Friedrich Nietzsche|translator-link=R. J. Hollingdale}}</ref>
In 1900, the [[Church of the Lutheran Brethren]] was founded and it adheres to Pietist Lutheran theology, emphasizing a [[Born again|personal conversion experience]].<ref name="Tweton1988"/><ref name="Cimino2003">{{cite book |last1=Cimino |first1=Richard |title=Lutherans Today: American Lutheran Identity in the Twenty-First Century |date=2003 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=9780802813657 |page=3 |language=en}}</ref>
==Pietistic Lutheran denominations==
Pietistic Lutheranism influenced existing Lutheran denominations such as the [[Church of Norway]] and many Pietistic Lutherans have remained in them, though other Pietistic Lutherans have established their own Synods too. In the middle of the 19th century, [[Lars Levi Laestadius]] spearheaded a Pietist revival in Scandinavia that upheld what came to be known as [[Laestadian Lutheranism|Laestadian Lutheran theology]], which is adhered to today by the [[Conservative Laestadianism|Laestadian Lutheran Churches]] as well as by several congregations within other mainstream Lutheran Churches, such as the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland]].<ref name="Holmquist1981"/><ref name="Kivisto2014"/> The [[Eielsen Synod]] and [[Association of Free Lutheran Congregations]] are Pietist Lutheran bodies that emerged in the [[Haugean movement|Pietist Lutheran movement in Norway]], which was spearheaded by [[Hans Nielsen Hauge]].<ref name="Gritsch1994"/> In 1900, the [[Church of the Lutheran Brethren]] was founded and it adheres to Pietist Lutheran theology, emphasizing a [[Born again|personal conversion experience]].<ref name="Tweton1988"/>
==Cross-denominational influence==
{{Main articles|Radical Pietism}}
=== Radical Pietism ===
Radical Pietism are those [[Ecclesiastical separatism|Christian Churches]] who decided to break with denominational [[Lutheranism]] in order to emphasize certain teachings regarding holy living. Churches in the Radical Pietist movement include the [[Mennonite Brethren Church]], [[Community of True Inspiration]] (Inspirationalists), the [[Baptist General Conference]], members of the [[International Federation of Free Evangelical Churches]] (such as the [[Evangelical Covenant Church]] and the [[Evangelical Free Church]]), the [[Templers (religious believers)|Templers]], the [[River Brethren]] (inclusive of the [[Brethren in Christ Church]], the [[Calvary Holiness Church (Philadelphia)|Calvary Holiness Church]], the [[Old Order River Brethren]] and the [[United Zion Church]]), as well as the [[Schwarzenau Brethren]] (that include Old Order groups such as the [[Old Brethren German Baptist]], Conservative groups such as the [[Dunkard Brethren Church]], and mainline groups such as the [[Church of the Brethren]]).<ref name="Shantz2013">{{cite book |last1=Shantz |first1=Douglas H. |title=An Introduction to German Pietism: Protestant Renewal at the Dawn of Modern Europe |date=2013 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=9781421408804 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="SmithJamison1969">{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=James Ward |last2=Jamison |first2=Albert Leland |title=Religion in American life |date=1969 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |language=English}}</ref><ref name="Ratliff2010">{{cite book |last1=Ratliff |first1=Walter R. |title=Pilgrims on the Silk Road: A Muslim-Christian Encounter in Khiva |date=2010 |publisher=Walter Ratliff |isbn=9781606081334 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="Carter2007">{{cite book |last1=Carter |first1=Craig A. |title=Rethinking Christ and Culture: A Post-Christendom Perspective |date=2007 |publisher=Brazos Press |isbn=9781441201225 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="MeltonBaumann2010">{{cite book |last1=Melton |first1=J. Gordon |last2=Baumann |first2=Martin |title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition [6 volumes] |date=2010 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |isbn=9781598842043 |language=English}}</ref>
=== Influence on the Methodists ===
As with [[Moravian Church|Moravianism]], Pietism was a major influence on [[John Wesley]] and others who began the [[Methodism|Methodist movement]] in 18th-century [[Great Britain]]. John Wesley was influenced significantly by [[Moravian church|Moravians]] (e.g., [[Zinzendorf]], [[Peter Boehler]]) and Pietists connected to Francke and Halle Pietism. The fruit of these Pietist influences can be seen in the modern American Methodists, especially those who are aligned with the [[Holiness movement]].
=== Influence on religion in America ===
Pietism had an influence on religion in America, as many German immigrants settled in Pennsylvania, New York, and other areas. Its influence can be traced in certain sectors of [[Evangelicalism]]. Balmer says that:
<blockquote>Evangelicalism itself, I believe, is a quintessentially North American phenomenon, deriving as it did from the confluence of Pietism, [[Presbyterianism]], and the vestiges of [[Puritanism]].  Evangelicalism picked up the peculiar characteristics from each strain – warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for instance), doctrinal precisionism from the Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection from the Puritans – even as the North American context itself has profoundly shaped the various manifestations of evangelicalism:  fundamentalism, neo-evangelicalism, the holiness movement, Pentecostalism, the [[charismatic movement]], and various forms of African-American and Hispanic evangelicalism.<ref>{{cite book|author=Randall Balmer|title=The Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=syUupeVJOz4C&pg=PR8|year=2002|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|pages=vii–viii|isbn=9780664224097 }}</ref></blockquote>
== Influence on science ==
The [[Merton Thesis]] is an argument about the nature of early [[experimental science]] proposed by [[Robert K. Merton]]. Similar to [[Max Weber]]'s [[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism|famous claim]] on the link between [[Protestant ethic]] and the [[capitalist economy]], Merton argued for a similar positive [[correlation]] between the rise of [[Protestant]] Pietism and early experimental science.<ref name="sztompka2003">Sztompka, 2003</ref> The Merton Thesis has resulted in continuous debates.<ref name="cohen1990">Cohen, 1990</ref>
==Impact on party voting in United States and Great Britain==
{{Further|Ethnocultural politics in the United States}}
In the United States, Richard L. McCormick says, "In the nineteenth century voters whose religious heritage was pietistic or evangelical were prone to support the Whigs and, later, the Republicans." Paul Kleppner generalizes, "the more pietistic the group's outlook the more intensely Republican its partisan affiliation."<ref>{{cite book|author=Richard L. McCormick|title=The Party Period and Public Policy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YjbNdKWKkoQC&pg=PA48|year=1988|publisher=Oxford UP|pages=47–48|isbn=978-0-19-536434-7 }}</ref> McCormick notes that the key link between religious values and politics resulted from the "urge of evangelicals and Pietists to 'reach out and purge the world of sin'".<ref>McCormick, p 48</ref> Pietism became influential among Scandinavian Lutherans; additionally it affected other denominations in the United States, such as the [[Methodist Episcopal Church|Northern Methodists]], [[American Baptist Churches USA|Northern Baptists]], [[Congregationalism in the United States|Congregationalists]], [[Presbyterian Church in the United States of America|Presbyterians]], [[Disciples of Christ]], and some smaller groups. The great majority were based in the northern states; some of these groups in the South would rather support the Democrats.<ref>Paul Kleppner, ''The Third Electoral System 1853-1892: Parties, Voters, and Political Cultures'' (University of North Carolina Press, 1979).</ref>
In England in the late 19th and early 20th century, the [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|Nonconformist]] Protestant denominations, such as the Methodists, Baptists and Congregationalists, formed the base of the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Howard Martin|title=Britain in the 19th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SjPDDaMhns0C&pg=PA298|year=1996|publisher=Nelson Thornes|page=298|isbn=9780174350620 }}</ref> David Hempton states, "The Liberal Party was the main beneficiary of Methodist political loyalties."<ref>{{cite book|author=David Hempton|title=Religion and Political Culture in Britain and Ireland: From the Glorious Revolution to the Decline of Empire|date=26 January 1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AQ_ZrhPkh4C&pg=PA37|publisher=Cambridge UP|page=37|isbn=9780521479257 }}</ref>
==See also==
{{17th Century Scholasticism}}
* [[Amana Colonies]]
* [[Adolf Köberle]]
* [[Catholic Charismatic Renewal]]
* [[Church of the Brethren]]
* [[Erik Pontoppidan]]
* [[Evangelical Covenant Church]]
* [[Evangelical Free Church of America]]
* [[Friedrich Christoph Oetinger]]
* [[Friedrich Hölderlin]]
* [[George Rapp|Johann Georg Rapp]]
* [[Hans Adolph Brorson]]
* [[Harmony Society]]
* [[Henric Schartau]]
* [[Immanuel Kant]]
* [[Knightly Piety]]
* [[Johann Albrecht Bengel]]
* [[Johann Konrad Dippel]]
* [[Johannes Kelpius]]
* [[Mission Covenant Church of Sweden]]
* [[Templers (religious believers)]]
* ''[[Theologia Germanica]]''
* [[Wesleyanism]]
{{Portal|Christianity|Reformed Christianity|Religion}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
* See: "Six Principles of Pietism", based on Philip Jacob Spener's six proposals http://www.miamifirstbrethren.org/about-us
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Pietism}}
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Pietism |volume=21 |pages=593–594}}
==Further reading==
* Brown, Dale: ''Understanding Pietism'', rev. ed. Nappanee, IN: Evangel Publishing House, 1996.
* Brunner, Daniel L. ''Halle Pietists in England: Anthony William Boehm and the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge''. Arbeiten zur Geschichte des Pietismus 29. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1993.
* Gehrz, Christopher and Mark Pattie III. ''The Pietist Option: Hope for the Renewal of Christianity''. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2017.
* Olson, Roger E., Christian T. Collins Winn. ''Reclaiming Pietism: Retrieving an Evangelical Tradition'' (Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2015). xiii + 190 pp. [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=44196 online review]
* Shantz, Douglas H. ''An Introduction to German Pietism: Protestant Renewal at the Dawn of Modern Europe''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013.
* Stoeffler, F. Ernest. ''The Rise of Evangelical Pietism''. Studies in the History of Religion 9. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1965.
* Stoeffler, F. Ernest. ''German Pietism During the Eighteenth Century''. Studies in the History of Religion 24. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1973.
* Stoeffler, F. Ernest. ed.: ''Continental Pietism and Early American Christianity''. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1976.
* Winn, Christian T. et al. eds. ''The Pietist Impulse in Christianity''. Pickwick, 2012.
* Yoder, Peter James. ''[https://www.psupress.org/books/titles/978-0-271-08800-6.html Pietism and the Sacraments: The Life and Theology of August Hermann Francke].'' University Park: PSU Press, 2021.
=== Older works ===
* [[Joachim Feller]], Sonnet. In: ''Luctuosa desideria Quibus'' […] ''Martinum Bornium prosequebantur Quidam Patroni, Praeceptores atque Amici''. Lipsiae [1689], pp. [2]–[3]. (Facsimile in: Reinhard Breymayer (Ed.): ''Luctuosa desideria''. Tübingen 2008, pp.&nbsp;24–25.) Here for the first time the newly detected source. – Less exactly cf. Martin Brecht: ''Geschichte des Pietismus'', vol. I, p.&nbsp;4.
* [[Johann Georg Walch]], ''Historische und theologische Einleitung in die Religionsstreitigkeiten der evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche'' (1730);
* [[Friedrich August Tholuck]], ''Geschichte des Pietismus und des ersten Stadiums der Aufklärung'' (1865);
* [[Heinrich Schmid (theologian)|Heinrich Schmid]], ''Die Geschichte des Pietismus'' (1863);
* [[Max Goebel]], ''Geschichte des christlichen Lebens in der Rheinisch-Westfälischen Kirche'' (3 vols., 1849–1860).
The subject is dealt with at length in
* [[Isaak August Dorner]]'s and W Gass's ''Histories of Protestant theology''.
Other works are:
* [[Heinrich Heppe]], ''Geschichte des Pietismus und der Mystik in der reformierten Kirche'' (1879), which is sympathetic;
* [[Albrecht Ritschl]], ''Geschichte des Pietismus'' (5 vols., 1880–1886), which is hostile; and
* [[Eugen Sachsse]], ''Ursprung und Wesen des Pietismus'' (1884).
See also
* [[Friedrich Wilhelm Franz Nippold]]'s article in ''Theol. Stud. und Kritiken'' (1882), pp.&nbsp;347?392;
* [[Hans von Schubert]], ''Outlines of Church History'', ch. xv. (Eng. trans., 1907); and
* [[Carl Mirbt]]'s article, "Pietismus," in Herzog-Hauck's ''Realencyklopädie für prot. Theologie u. Kirche'', end of vol. xv.
The most extensive and current edition on Pietism is the four-volume edition in German, covering the entire movement in Europe and North America
* '''Geschichte des Pietismus (GdP)'''<br />Im Auftrag der Historischen Kommission zur Erforschung des Pietismus herausgegeben von Martin Brecht, Klaus Deppermann, Ulrich Gäbler und [[Hartmut Lehmann]]<br />(English: <small>On behalf of the Historical Commission for the Study of pietism edited by Martin Brecht, Klaus Deppermann, Ulrich Gaebler and Hartmut Lehmann</small>)
** ''Band 1:'' Der Pietismus vom siebzehnten bis zum frühen achtzehnten Jahrhundert. In Zusammenarbeit mit Johannes van den Berg, Klaus Deppermann, Johannes Friedrich Gerhard Goeters und Hans Schneider hg. von Martin Brecht. Goettingen 1993. / 584 p.
** ''Band 2:'' Der Pietismus im achtzehnten Jahrhundert. In Zusammenarbeit mit Friedhelm Ackva, Johannes van den Berg, Rudolf Dellsperger, Johann Friedrich Gerhard Goeters, Manfred Jakubowski-Tiessen, Pentii Laasonen, Dietrich Meyer, [[Ingun Montgomery]], Christian Peters, A. Gregg Roeber, Hans Schneider, Patrick Streiff und [[Horst Weigelt]] hg. von Martin Brecht und Klaus Deppermann. Goettingen 1995. / 826 p.
** ''Band 3:'' Der Pietismus im neunzehnten und zwanzigsten Jahrhundert. In Zusammenarbeit mit Gustav Adolf Benrath, Eberhard Busch, Pavel Filipi, Arnd Götzelmann, Pentii Laasonen, Hartmut Lehmann, Mark A. Noll, Jörg Ohlemacher, Karl Rennstich und Horst Weigelt unter Mitwirkung von Martin Sallmann hg. von Ulrich Gäbler. Goettingen 2000. / 607 p.
** ''Band 4:'' Glaubenswelt und Lebenswelten des Pietismus. In Zusammenarbeit mit Ruth Albrecht, Martin Brecht, Christian Bunners, Ulrich Gäbler, Andreas Gestrich, Horst Gundlach, Jan Harasimovicz, Manfred Jakubowski-Tiessen, Peter Kriedtke, Martin Kruse, Werner Koch, Markus Matthias, Thomas Müller Bahlke, Gerhard Schäfer (†), Hans-Jürgen Schrader, Walter Sparn, Udo Sträter, Rudolf von Thadden, Richard Trellner, Johannes Wallmann und Hermann Wellenreuther hg. von Hartmut Lehmann. Goettingen 2004. / 709 p.
==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061113020835/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc09.html?term=Pietism New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, Vol. IX: Pietism]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090714055033/http://www.wlsessays.net/node/525 After Three Centuries – The Legacy of Pietism by E.C. Fredrich]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100707141326/http://www.wlsessays.net/node/961 Literary Landmarks of Pietism by Martin O. Westerhaus]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100707141158/http://www.wlsessays.net/node/853 Pietism's World Mission Enterprise by Ernst H. Wendland]
* [https://www.oldapostoliclutheranchurch.org/ Old Apostolic Lutheran Church of America]
* [http://pietistchurch.org/ The Evangelical Pietist Church of Chatfield]
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