View source for Pink-collar worker

{{Short description|Someone working in the care-oriented career field}}
{{Globalize|article|USA|UK|date=August 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
[[File:Special ed teacher.jpg|alt=|thumb|325x325px|A [[Special education in the United States|special education]] teacher assists one of her students]]
A '''pink-collar worker''' is someone working in the care-oriented career field or in fields historically considered to be [[women's work]]. This may include jobs in the [[beauty industry]], [[nursing]], [[social work]], [[teaching]], [[secretarial work]], or [[child care]].<ref name="statistic1"/> While these jobs may also be filled by men, they have historically been female-dominated (a tendency that continues today, though to a somewhat lesser extent) and may pay significantly less than [[White-collar worker|white-collar]] or [[Blue-collar worker|blue-collar]] jobs.<ref name="statistic2"/>
Women's work – notably with the delegation of women to particular fields within the workplace – began to rise in the 1940s, in concurrence with [[World War II]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Basu|first1=S.|last2=Ratcliffe|first2=G.|last3=Green|first3=M.|date=2015-10-01|title=Health and pink-collar work|url=https://academic.oup.com/occmed/article/65/7/529/1734475|journal=Occupational Medicine|language=en|volume=65|issue=7|pages=529–534|doi=10.1093/occmed/kqv103|pmid=26272379|issn=0962-7480|doi-access=free}}</ref>
== Occupations ==
Pink-collar occupations tend to be personal-service-oriented workers working in retail, nursing, and [[Teacher|teaching]] (depending on the level), are part of the [[service sector]], and are among the most common occupations in the [[United States]]. The [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] estimates that, as of May 2008, there were over 2.2 million persons employed as servers in the United States.<ref name="statistic1">{{cite web |url=http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes353031.htm |title=Occupational Employment and Wages – Waiters and Waitresses |access-date=2006-12-31 |author=U.S. Department of Labor – Bureau of Labor Statistics |date=24 May 2006 |publisher=US Department of Labor }}</ref> Furthermore, the [[World Health Organization]]'s 2011 World Health Statistics Report states that there are 19.3 million nurses in the world today.<ref name="statistic2">{{cite web|title=World Health Statistics 2011|url=https://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/2011/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116011154/http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/2011/en/|url-status=dead|archive-date=16 November 2011|publisher=World Health Organization|access-date=1 September 2013}}</ref> In the United States, women constitute 92.1% of the registered nurses that are currently employed.<ref>{{cite web|title=Quick Facts on Registered Nurses|url=http://www.dol.gov/wb/factsheets/Qf-nursing.htm|publisher=US Department of Labor|access-date=1 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006160116/http://www.dol.gov/wb/factsheets/Qf-nursing.htm|archive-date=6 October 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
According to the 2016 United States Census analyzed in Barnes, et al.'s research paper, more than 95% of the construction workforce is male.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last1=Barnes|first1=Tiffany D.|last2=Beall|first2=Victoria D.|last3=Holman|first3=Mirya R.|date=2021|title=Pink-Collar Representation and Budgetary Outcomes in US States|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/lsq.12286|journal=Legislative Studies Quarterly|language=en|volume=46|issue=1|pages=119–154|doi=10.1111/lsq.12286|s2cid=219502815|issn=1939-9162}}</ref> Due to the low population of women outside of the childcare or social workforce, state governments are miscalculating economic budgets by not accounting for most female pink-collar workers.<ref name=":22" /> Generally, less government funding is allocated to professions and work environments that traditionally employ and retain a greater percentage of women, for example, education and social work. From the research conducted by Tiffany Barnes, Victoria Beall, and Mirya Holman, discrepancies for government representation of pink-collar jobs could primarily be due to legislatures and government employees having the perspective for only white-collar jobs and most people making budgetary decisions are men.<ref name=":22" /> A white collar-job is typically administrative.
As explained in Buzzanell et al.'s research article, maternity leave is the time off from work a mother takes after having a child, either through childbirth or adoption.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last1=Buzzanell|first1=Patrice M.|last2=Remke|first2=Robyn V.|last3=Meisenbach|first3=Rebecca|last4=Liu|first4=Meina|last5=Bowers|first5=Venessa|last6=Conn|first6=Cindy|date=2017-01-02|title=Standpoints of Maternity Leave: Discourses of Temporality and Ability|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/07491409.2015.1113451|journal=Women's Studies in Communication|volume=40|issue=1|pages=67–90|doi=10.1080/07491409.2015.1113451|s2cid=148124656|issn=0749-1409}}</ref> In 2010, the [[International Labour Organization|International Labour Office]] explained that [[maternity leave]] is usually compensated by the employer's company, but several countries do not follow that mandate, including the United States.<ref name=":32" /> Results from "Standpoints of Maternity Leave: Discourses of Temporality and Ability" state that many new mothers employed in pink-collar work have keyed disability or sick leave instead of time off for maternity leave.<ref name=":32" />
'''Pink-collar occupations may include:'''<ref>{{cite web | url=http://money.usnews.com/money/careers/articles/2012/09/10/the-pink-collar-job-boom | title=The Pink-Collar Job Boom | publisher=US News | access-date=13 June 2014 | first=David| last=Francis}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://nbclatino.com/2012/06/27/nine-pink-collar-jobs-men-want-most/ | title=Nine pink collar jobs men want most | publisher=NBC | date=2012-06-27 | access-date=29 June 2014 | first=Katerina | last=Sardi | archive-date=29 April 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429113212/http://nbclatino.com/2012/06/27/nine-pink-collar-jobs-men-want-most/ | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://iusbpreface.net/2023/03/02/pink-collar-jobs-are-disproportionately-underpaid/ | title ="Pink collar" jobs are disproportionately underpaid | publisher=Indiana University Sourh Bend Student Newspaper | date=2023-03-02 | access-date=13 February 2024 | first=Ashley | last=Rose | archive-date=3 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230303014305/https://iusbpreface.net/2023/03/02/pink-collar-jobs-are-disproportionately-underpaid/ | url-status=live }}</ref>
===Architecture===
* [[Interior designer]]
* [[Landscape designer]]
=== Education ===
* [[Primary education|Primary teacher]]
* [[Preschool teacher]] / early childhood educator / kindergarten teacher / [[nursery nurse]]
* [[Special education|Special Education teacher]]
* [[Teaching assistant]]
* [[Librarian]] / [[teacher-librarian]]
* [[Library assistant]] / [[library technician]]
=== Healthcare ===
* [[Nurse]] / [[registered nurse]]
* [[Midwife]]
* [[Psychiatric rehabilitation|Psychiatric rehabilitation specialist]]
* [[Occupational therapy|Occupational therapist]]
* [[Physical therapy|Physical therapist]]
* [[Speech-Language Pathologist|Speech-language pathologist]] / [[speech and language therapist]]
* [[Nutritionist]] / [[dietitian]]
* [[Dental assistant]]
* [[Social Worker|Social worker]]
* [[Psychologist]]
* Medical and health service managers
* [[Mental health counselor|Counselor]]
* [[Pharmacy technician]]
* [[Dental hygienist]]
* [[Lactation consultant]]
* [[Wet nurse]]
* [[Medical Assistant|Medical assistant]] / healthcare assistant / nurse's aide
* Hospital attendant / hospital service worker / hospital orderly
=== Administration ===
* Advertising and promotions managers
* [[Bank teller]]
* [[Bookkeeper]]
* Marketing coordinator / marketing assistant
* [[Human resources]] manager
* [[Legal secretary]]
* [[Paralegal]]
* [[Public relations]] manager
* [[Receptionist]]
* [[Secretary]] / [[administrative assistant]] / information clerk
* [[Data entry clerk]] / [[Shorthand]]
* Meeting and convention planner
* Tax examiner / revenue agent
===Entertainment===
*[[Dancer]]
=== Fashion ===
* [[Hairstylist]] / [[barber]] / [[hair colorist]]
* [[Dressmaker]] / [[costume designer]] / [[tailor]] / [[Sewing]] / [[image consultant]]
* [[Cosmetologist]] / [[make-up artist]]  / nail technician / [[perfumer]] / esthetician
* [[Model (person)|Model]]
* [[Personal stylist]] / [[fashion stylist]]
* [[Henna]] / [[Mehndi]] artist
* [[Buyer (fashion)|Buyer]]
===Media===
* [[Magazine editor]]
=== Personal care and service ===
* [[Valet]]
* [[Waitress]] / [[barista]] / [[bartender]] / [[busser]]
* [[Flight attendant]] / [[stewardess]]
* [[Museum docent]]s / [[tour guide]]
* [[Casino host]]
* [[Doula]] / [[caregiver]]
* [[Babysitter]] / day care worker / [[nanny]] / child-care provider
* [[Domestic worker]] / [[Maid service]]s attendant
* [[Cleaner]]
* [[Massage therapist]]
* [[Florist]]
* [[Camp counselor]] / non-profit volunteer coordinator / recreation director
* [[Relationship counseling|Relationship counselor]] / [[family therapist]] / [[social worker]]
* [[Travel agent]]
* [[Wedding planner]] / [[event planner]]
* Hotel housekeeper / chambermaid
* [[Cashier]] / [[waiting staff]]
* [[Retail clerk]]s / [[retail salesperson]] / retail manager
* Food preparation worker / counter attendant / [[Lunch lady|cafeteria attendant]]
* Personal care attendant / personal or home care aide
* [[Car attendant]]
* [[Washroom attendant]]
* [[Parking enforcement officer|Meter maid]] / parking lot attendant
=== Sport ===
* [[Cheerleader]]
* [[Dancer]] / [[choreographer]] / [[dance instructor]]
* [[Fitness instructor]]
== Background (United States) ==
Historically, women were responsible for the running of a household.<ref>Ware 1982, p. 17</ref> Their financial security was often dependent upon a male patriarch. Widowed or divorced women struggled to support themselves and their children.<ref>Humowitz Weissman 1978, p. 333</ref>
Western women began to develop more opportunities when they moved into the paid workplace, formerly of the male domain. In the mid 19th and early 20th century women aimed to be treated as equals to their male counterparts, notably in the [[Seneca Falls Convention]]. In 1920 American women legally gained the [[suffrage|right to vote]], marking a turning point for the American [[Women's suffrage in the United States|women's suffrage]] movement; yet race and class remained as [[Voting rights in the United States|impediments to voting]] for some women.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Naffziger |first1=Claudeen Cline |last2=Naffziger |first2=Ken |title=Development of Sex Role Stereotypes |journal=The Family Coordinator |date=1974 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=251–259 |doi=10.2307/582762|jstor=582762 }}</ref>
At the turn of the 19th century into the 20th, large numbers of single women in the United States traveled to large cities such as New York where they found work in factories and [[sweatshop]]s, working for low pay operating sewing machines, sorting feathers, rolling tobacco, and other similar menial tasks.<ref>Gourley 2008, p. 103</ref><ref name = "Sweatshops">{{Cite web|url=https://americanhistory.si.edu/sweatshops/history-1880-1940|title=Sweatshops 1880-1940|date=2017-08-21|website=National Museum of American History|language=en|access-date=2019-10-14}}</ref>
In these factories, workers frequently breathed dangerous fumes and worked with flammable materials.<ref name="humowitz239">Humowitz Weissman 1978, p. 239</ref> In order for factories to save money, women were required to clean and adjust the machines while they were running, which resulted in accidents where women lost their fingers or hands.<ref name="humowitz239"/> Many women who worked in the factories earned meager wages for working long hours in unsafe conditions and as a result lived in poverty.<ref name = "Sweatshops"/>
Throughout the 20th century, women such as [[Emily Balch]], [[Jane Addams]], and [[Lillian Wald]] were advocates for evolving the roles of women in America.<ref name="gourley99">Gourley 2008, p. 99.</ref> These women created [[settlement house]]s and launched missions in overcrowded squalid immigrant neighborhoods to offer social services to women and children.<ref name="gourley99"/>
In addition, women gradually became more involved with church activities and came to take on more leadership roles in various religious societies. The women who joined these societies worked with their members, some of whom were full-time teachers, nurses, [[Missionary|missionaries]], and social workers to accomplish their leadership tasks.<ref name="Wallace">{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=Ruth A. |title=Women and Religion: The Transformation of Leadership Roles |journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion |date=2000 |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=496–508 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-5906.2000.tb00011.x|jstor=1388082}}</ref> The [[Association for the Sociology of Religion]] was the first to elect a woman president in 1938.<ref name="Wallace"/>
=== Invention of the typewriter ===
Typically, clerk positions were filled by young men who used the position as an [[apprenticeship]] and opportunity to learn basic office functions before moving on to management positions. In the 1860s and 1870s, widespread use of the [[typewriter]] made women appear better suited for clerk positions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mullaney|first1=Marie Marmo|last2=Hilbert|first2=Rosemary C.|date=February 2018|title=Educating Women for Self-Reliance and Economic Opportunity: The Strategic Entrepreneurialism of the Katharine Gibbs Schools, 1911–1968|journal=History of Education Quarterly|language=en|volume=58|issue=1|pages=65–93|doi=10.1017/heq.2017.49|issn=0018-2680|doi-access=free}}</ref> With their smaller fingers, women were perceived to be better able to operate the new machines. By 1885, new methods of note-taking and the expanding scope of businesses led office-clerk positions to be in high demand.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Davies|first=M.W.|title=. A Woman's Place is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930|publisher=Temple University Press|year=1982|location=Philadelphia}}</ref> Having a [[secretary]] became a status symbol, and these new types of positions were relatively well paid.
=== World War I and II ===
[[File:U.S. Navy Nurse Corps recruiting poster, January 1945 (NH 78855).jpg|150px|thumb|left|A [[United States Navy]] recruiting poster from World War II, showing an officer of the [[Navy WAVES]] before a hospital ship]]
[[File:We Can Do It!.jpg|thumb|This poster made in 1942 titled "[[We Can Do It!]]" captures the [[World War II|WWII]] era cultural icon [[Rosie the Riveter]] depicted by J. Howard Miller who created this poster as an inspirational image to boost female worker morale.]]
[[World War I]] sparked a demand for "pink-collar jobs" as the military needed personnel to type letters, answer phones, and perform other secretarial tasks. One thousand women worked for the U.S. Navy as [[stenographer]]s, clerks, and telephone operators.<ref>Gourley 2008, p. 119</ref>
In addition, [[Military nurse]]s, an already [[Feminisation of the workplace|"feminized"]] and accepted profession for women, expanded during wartime. In 1917, [[Louisa Lee Schuyler]] opened the [[Bellevue Hospital School of Nursing]], which was the first to train women as professional nurses.<ref>Gourley 2008, p. 123</ref> After completing training, female nurses worked in hospitals or more predominantly in field tents.
[[World War II]] marked the emergence of large numbers of women working domestically in industrial jobs to assist in the war effort as directed under the [[War Manpower Commission]] which recruited women to fill war manufacturing jobs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/wwii-women.html|title=Women in the Work Force during World War II|date=2016-08-15|website=National Archives|language=en|access-date=2019-10-14}}</ref>
Notably, [[American women in World War II]] joined the armed services and were stationed domestically and abroad through participation in non-combat military roles and as medical personnel. One thousand female pilots joined the [[Women Airforce Service Pilots]], one hundred and forty thousand women joined the [[Women's Army Corps]] and one hundred thousand women joined the [[United States Navy]] as nurses through [[WAVES]] in addition to administrative staff.<ref>{{cite book |last=May |first=Elaine Tyler |title=Pushing the Limits |url=https://archive.org/details/pushinglimitsame00maye |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University |location=New York |year=1994 |page=[https://archive.org/details/pushinglimitsame00maye/page/41 41]|isbn=978-0-19-508084-1 }}</ref>
== 20th-century female working world (United States) ==
[[File:Pink 2.JPG|thumb|This graph shows the increase in women graduating high school and attending college, while there is a decrease in high school dropouts.]]
A typical job sought by working women in the early 20th century was a [[switchboard operator|telephone operator]] or [[Hello Girls|Hello Girl]]. The Hello Girls began as women who operated on [[telephone switchboard]]s during [[World War I|WWI]] by answering telephones and talking to impatient callers in a calming tone.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/news/topics/hello.html
|title=Topics in Chronicling America-Hello Girls|date=29 January 2015
|website=The Library of Congress|access-date=8 December 2017}}</ref> The workers would sit on stools facing a wall with hundreds of outlets and tiny blinking lights.  They had to work quickly when a light flashed by plugging the cord into the proper outlet.  Despite the difficult work, many women wanted this job because it paid five dollars a week and provided a rest lounge for the employees to take a break.<ref name="Catherine Gourley 2008"/>
Female secretaries were also popular. They were instructed to be efficient, tough, and hardworking while also appearing soft, accommodating, and subservient.<ref name="jstor.org">{{cite journal |last1=Rung |first1=Margaret C. |title=Paternalism and Pink Collars: Gender and Federal Employee Relations, 1941–50 |journal=Business History Review |date=1997 |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=381–416 |doi=10.2307/3116078|jstor=3116078 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Women were expected to be the protector and partner to their boss behind closed doors and a helpmate in public. These women were encouraged to go to charm schools and express their personality through fashion instead of furthering their education.<ref name="jstor.org"/>
[[Social work]] became a female-dominated profession in the 1930s, emphasizing a group professional identity and the casework method.<ref name="Susan Ware 1982">Ware 1982, p. 74</ref> Social workers gave crucial expertise for the expansion of federal, state and local government, as well as services to meet the needs of the Depression.<ref name="Susan Ware 1982"/>
Teachers in primary and secondary schools remained female, although as the war progressed, women began to move on to better employment and higher salaries.<ref name="ReferenceA">Ware 1982, p. 102</ref> In 1940, teaching positions paid less than $1,500 a year and fell to $800 in rural areas.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
Women scientists found it hard to gain appointments at universities. Women scientists were forced to take positions in high schools, state or women's colleges, governmental agencies and alternative institutions such as libraries or museums.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Women who took jobs at such places often did clerical duties and though some held professional positions, these boundaries were blurred.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Some found work as [[human computer]]s.
Mostly women were hired as librarians, who had been professionalized and feminized from the late 19th century. In 1920, women accounted for 88% of librarians in the United States.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
Two-thirds of the [[American Geographical Society]] (AGS)'s employees were women, who served as librarians, editorial personnel in the publishing programs, secretaries, research editors, copy editors, proofreaders, research assistants and sales staff. These women came with credentials from well-known colleges and universities and many were overqualified for their positions, but later were promoted to more prestigious positions.
Although female employees did not receive equal pay, they did get sabbaticals to attend university and to travel for their professions at the cost of the AGS.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite journal |last1=Monk |first1=Janice |title=Women's Worlds at the American Geographical Society |journal=Geographical Review |date=2003 |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=237–257 |doi=10.1111/j.1931-0846.2003.tb00031.x|bibcode=2003GeoRv..93..237M |s2cid=144133405 }}</ref> Those women working managerial and library or museums positions made an impact on women in the work force, but still encountered discrimination when they tried to advance.
In the 1940s, clerical work expanded to occupy the largest number of women employees, this field diversified as it moved into commercial service.<ref>Susan M. Hartmann, The Home Front and Beyond (Boston, MA: G.K. Hall &Co., 1982), p. 94.</ref> The average worker in the 1940s was over 35 years old, married, and needed to work to keep their families afloat.<ref>Humowitz Weissman 1978, p. 314</ref>
During the 1950s, women were taught that marriage and domesticity were more important than a career. Most women followed this path because of the uncertainty of the post-war years.<ref>Humowitz Weissman 1978, p. 326</ref> Suburban housewives were encouraged to have hobbies like bread making and sewing. The 1950s housewife was in conflict between being "just a housewife" because their upbringing taught them competition and achievement. Many women had furthered their education deriving a sense of self-worth.<ref>Humowitz Weissman 1978, p. 332</ref>
As mentioned in the research article by Patrice Buzzanell, Robyn Remke, Rebecca Meisenbach, Meina Liu, Venessa Bowers, and Cindy Conn, as of 2016, pink-collar jobs are quickly growing in demand by both men and women.<ref name=":32"/> Professions within pink-collar jobs are more likely to be consistent with job security and the need for employment, but salary and advancements seem to be much more slow-growing factors.<ref name=":32"/>
=== Pay ===
A single woman working in a factory in the early 20th century earned less than $8 a week, which is equivalent to roughly less than $98 a week today.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.usinflationcalculator.com/|title=US Inflation Calculator|website=US Inflation Calculator|language=en-US|access-date=2017-12-16}}</ref> If the woman was absent or was late, employers penalized them by docking their pay.<ref name="Catherine Gourley 2008">Gourley 2008, p. 105</ref> These women would live in boarding houses costing $1.50 a week, waking at 5:30&nbsp;a.m. to start their ten-hour work day. When women entered the paid workforce in the 1920s they were paid less than men because employers thought the women's jobs were temporary. Employers also paid women less than men because they believed in the "Pin Money Theory", which said that women's earnings were secondary to that of their male counterparts. Married working women experienced lopsided stress and overload because they were still responsible for the majority of the housework and taking care of the children. This left women isolated and subjected them to their husband's control.<ref name="Hilary Silver 1993">Silver, Hilary. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/684634 "Housework and Domestic Work,"] ''Sociological Forum'' 182 no.2 (1993).</ref>
In the early 1900s women's pay was one to three dollars a week and much of that went to living expenses.<ref>Archer, Jules (1991). ''Breaking Barriers'' (New York: The Penguin Group), p. 27.</ref> In the 1900s female tobacco strippers earned five dollars a week, half of what their male coworkers made and [[seamstress]]es made six to seven dollars a week compared to a cutter's salary of $16.<ref name="ReferenceC">Woloch 1984, p. 27</ref> This differed from women working in factories in the 1900s as they were paid by the piece, not receiving a fixed weekly wage.<ref name="humowitz236-7">Humowitz Weissman 1978, pp. 236–237</ref> Those that were pinching pennies pushed themselves to produce more product so that they earned more money.<ref name="humowitz236-7" /> Women who earned enough to live on found it impossible to keep their salary rate from being reduced because bosses often made "mistakes" in computing a worker's piece rate.<ref name="Humowitz240">Humowitz Weissman 1978, p. 240</ref> As well as this, women who received this kind of treatment did not disagree for fear of losing their jobs. Employers would frequently deduct pay for work they deemed imperfect and for simply trying to lighten the mood by laughing or talking while they worked.<ref name="Humowitz240" /> In the 1937 a woman's average yearly salary was $525 compared to a man's salary of $1,027.<ref name="ReferenceC" /> In the 1940s two-thirds of the women who were in the labor force suffered a decrease in earnings; the average weekly paychecks fell from $50 to $37.<ref name="Emily Stoper 1991" /> This gap in wage stayed consistent, as women in 1991 only earned seventy percent of what men earned regardless of their education.<ref name="Emily Stoper 1991">{{cite journal |last1=Stoper |first1=Emily |title=Women's Work, Women's Movement: Taking Stock |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |date=1991 |volume=515 |issue=1 |pages=151–162 |doi=10.1177/0002716291515001013|jstor=1046935|s2cid=153384038 }}</ref>
Later on in the 1970s and 1980s as women began to fight for equality, they fought against discrimination in jobs where women worked and the educational institutions that would lead to those jobs.<ref name="Emily Stoper 1991" /> In 1973 the average salaries for women were 57% compared to those of men, but this [[gender pay gap|gender earnings gap]] was especially noticeable in pink-collar jobs where the largest number of women were employed.<ref>Humowitz Weissman 1978, p. 364</ref> Women were given routine, less responsible jobs available and often with a lower pay than men. These jobs were monotonous and mechanical often with assembly-line procedures.<ref>Humowitz Weissman 1978, p. 304</ref>
=== Education ===
Women entering the workforce had difficulty finding a satisfactory job without references or an education.<ref>Gourley 2008, p. 104</ref> However, opportunities for [[higher education]] expanded as women were admitted to all-male schools like the [[United States service academies]] and [[Ivy League]] strongholds.<ref>Woloch 1984, p. 525</ref> Education became a way for society to shape women into its ideal housewife. In the 1950s, authorities and educators encouraged college because they found new value in vocational training for domesticity.<ref>Woloch 1984, p. 500</ref> College prepared women for future roles because while men and women were taught together, they were groomed for different paths after they graduated.<ref>Woloch 1984, p. 405</ref> Education started out as a way to teach women how to be a good wife, but education also allowed women to broaden their minds.
Being educated was an expectation for women entering the paying workforce, despite the fact that their male equivalents did not need a high school diploma.<ref>Humowitz Weissman 1978, p. 316</ref> While in college, a woman would experience extracurricular activities, such as a sorority, that offered a separate space for the woman to practice types of social service work that was expected from her.<ref name="Nancy Woloch 1984">Woloch 1984, p. 404</ref>
However, not all of a woman's education was done in the classroom. Women were also educated through their peers through "dating". Men and women no longer had to be supervised when alone together. Dating allowed men and women to practice the paired activities that would later become a way of life.<ref name="Nancy Woloch 1984"/>
New women's organizations sprouted up working to reform and protect women in the workplace. The largest and most prestigious of these organizations was the [[General Federation of Women's Clubs]] (GFWC), whose members were conservative middle-class housewives. The [[International Ladies Garment Workers Union]] (ILGWU) was formed after women shirtwaist makers went on strike in New York City in 1909. It started as a small walkout, with a handful of members from one shop and grew to a force of ten of thousands, changing the course of the labor movement forever. In 1910 women allied themselves with the [[Progressive Party (United States, 1912)|Progressive Party]] who sought to reform social issues.
Another organization that grew out of women in the workforce, was the [[United States Women's Bureau|Women's Bureau]] of the [[United States Department of Labor|Department of Labor]]. The Women's Bureau regulated conditions for women employees. As female labor became a crucial part of the economy, efforts by the Women's Bureau increased. The Bureau pushed for employers to take advantage of "women-power" and persuaded women to enter the employment market.
In 1913 the ILGWU signed the well-known "protocol in the Dress and Waist Industry" which was the first contract between labor and management settled by outside negotiators. The contract formalized the trade's division of labor by gender.
Another win for women came in 1921 when Congress passed the [[Sheppard–Towner Act]], a welfare measure intended to reduce infant and maternal mortality; it was the first federally funded healthcare act. The act provided federal funds to establish health centers for prenatal and child care. Expectant mothers and children could receive health checkups and health advice. <!-- This paragraph seems to be more about the expansions of women's rights than it is about pink-collar workers, I would recommend taking it out Kali Moumblow (talk) 20:11, 16 November 2017 (UTC)) -->
In 1963 the [[Equal Pay Act of 1963|Equal Pay Act]] was passed making it the first federal law against sex discrimination, equal pay for equal work (at least removed explicit base pay discrepancies based on sex), and had employers allow both men and women applicants to open positions if they qualified from the start.
Unions also became a major outlet for women to fight against the unfair treatment they experienced. Women who joined these types of unions stayed before and after work to talk about the benefits of the union, collect dues, obtain charters, and form bargaining committees.
The [[National Recovery Administration]] (NRA) was approved in May 1933. The NRA negotiated codes designed to rekindle production. It raised wages, shortened workers' hours, and increased employment for the first time maximizing hour and minimizing wage provisions benefiting female workers. The NRA had its flaws however, it only covered half of the women in the workforce particularly manufacturing and trade. The NRA regulated working conditions only for women with a job and did not offer any relief for the two million unemployed women who desperately needed it.
The 1930s proved successful for women in the workplace thanks to federal relief programs and the growth of unions. For the first time women were not completely dependent on themselves, in 1933 the federal government expanded in its responsibility to female workers. In 1938 the [[Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938|Fair Labor Standards Act]] grew out of several successful strikes. Two million women joined the workforce during the [[Great Depression in the United States|Great Depression]] despite negative public opinion.
== 21st-century female working world (United Kingdom) ==
Today, the economy in the United Kingdom still shows a prominent divide in a workforce with many occupations still labeled as "pink-collar".<ref name=":0" /> 28% of women worked jobs labeled under "pink-collar" in [[Rotherham]], a town in [[northern England]]. This study was conducted in 2010.<ref name=":0" /> In the United Kingdom, careers within nursing and teaching are not considered pink-collar jobs anymore, but instead are labeled as white-collar. This shift is also occurring in many other countries.<ref name=":0" /> Studies show that white-collar workers are less likely to face health disparities.<ref name=":0" />
==Pink ghetto==
"'''Pink ghetto'''" is a term used to refer to jobs dominated by women. The term was coined in 1983 to describe the limits women have in furthering their careers since the jobs are often dead-end, stressful and underpaid. The term ''pink ghetto'' is just simply another way of describing pink-collar work. ''Pink ghetto'' was more commonly used in the early years, when women were finally able to work. Pink-collar work became the popular term once it was popularized by Louise Kapp Howe, a writer and social critic, in the 1970s.
''Pink ghetto'' can also describe the placement of female managers into positions that will not lead them to the [[board room]], thus perpetuating the "[[glass ceiling]]". This includes managing areas such as human resources, customer service, and other areas that do not contribute to the corporate "bottom line". While this allows women to rise in ranks as a manager, their careers may eventually stall out and they may be excluded from the upper echelons.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2002727003_kleiman08.html |title=Pink-collar workers fight to leave "ghetto" |first=Carol |last=Kleiman |work=[[The Seattle Times]] |date=8 January 2006 |access-date=2008-10-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://thenewagenda.net/2009/02/10/promises-unkept-in-the-enduring-pink-ghetto |title=Promises Unkept in the Enduring Pink Ghetto |first=Gretchen |last=Glasscock |work=The New Agenda |date=2009-02-10 |access-date=2010-03-29 |archive-date=25 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225000627/http://thenewagenda.net/2009/02/10/promises-unkept-in-the-enduring-pink-ghetto/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/Content/Articles/Issues/Equity-Issues/P/Posting-Up-in-the-Pink-Ghetto.aspx |title=Posting Up in the Pink Ghetto |first=Sarah |last=Murray |work=[[Women's Sports Foundation]] |date=2008-01-08 |access-date=2010-03-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616054423/http://womenssportsfoundation.org/Content/Articles/Issues/Equity-Issues/P/Posting-Up-in-the-Pink-Ghetto.aspx |archive-date=16 June 2010 }}</ref>
== Pink or velvet ghetto in the field of public relations ==
The pink collar ghetto, also known as the velvet ghetto, concerns the phenomena of women entering a certain field employment and subsequently the status and pay grade of this profession drops along with the new influx of women workers. Some scholars, such as [[Elizabeth Toth]], claim this is partially the result of women taking technician roles instead of managerial roles, being less likely to negotiate higher pay, and being assumed to be putting family life before work, even when that is not the case.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-11-30-vw-27-story.html|title=Public Relations Field: 'Velvet Ghetto'|date=1986-11-30|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US|access-date=2019-10-17}}</ref>
Other scholars, such as Kim Golombisky, acknowledge the inequalities of women, and especially certain minority groups and different classes, as part of the cause of this phenomenon.
Traditionally, Feminism in public relations focuses on gender equality, but new scholarship makes claims that focusing on social justice would better aid feminist cause in the field. This brings the idea of [[Intersectionality|intersectionalism]] to the pink collar ghetto. The issue is not caused by what women lack as professionals, but caused by larger societal injustices and interlocking systems of oppression that systematically burden women.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Golombisky|first=Kim|date=2015|title=Renewing the Commitments of Feminist Public Relations Theory From Velvet Ghetto to Social Justice|journal=Journal of Public Relations Research|volume=27|issue=5|pages=389–415|doi=10.1080/1062726X.2015.1086653|s2cid=146755121|via=Communication Source}}</ref>
== Male integration ==
Scholars such as [[Judy Wajcman]] argue that technology has long been monopolized by men and is a great source of their power historically.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BtaiFSv09jMC&q=technology+displaces+jobs+for+men&pg=PR6|title=Feminism Confronts Technology|last=Wajcman|first=Judy|date=1991|publisher=Penn State Press|isbn=978-0271008028|language=en}}</ref> However, more millennial men are doing pink collar work because technology is affecting blue collar work. Machines are able to perform many of the tasks that were typically gendered male within factories. In a 1990 study conducted by Allan H. Hunt and Timothy L. Hunt, they examined how industrial robots would impact both the creation of jobs as well as job displacement among unskilled workers in the United States. It was concluded that the impact of unemployment due to the spread of robotics would be felt the greatest by uneducated, unskilled blue-collar workers. New technology in the form of robotics eliminates many semi or unskilled jobs, and has taken traditional male filled roles away from the job market.<ref>{{Cite book|last=L.|first=Hunt, H. Allan{{!}}Hunt, Timothy|date=1983|title=Human Resource Implications of Robotics.|url=https://archive.org/details/humanresourceimp0000hunt|language=en|isbn=9780880990080|publisher=W|url-access=registration}}</ref> Judy Wajcman maintains that skills involving machines and strength are associated with masculinity.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Male Designs on Technology|last=Wajman|first=Judy|pages=27}}</ref> This means that the least technical jobs (pink-collar) jobs are associated with women. These machines designed by men, using the technology they have always monopolized, are now displacing them and forcing them into pink-collar work widely viewed as a step down specifically due to negative associations with "women's work".
It was found as well that men going into traditionally claimed pink collar jobs are felt discriminated and threatened in their jobs.<ref name="Kalokerinos 553–565">{{Cite journal|last1=Kalokerinos|first1=Elise K.|last2=Kjelsaas|first2=Kathleen|last3=Bennetts|first3=Steven|last4=von Hippel|first4=Courtney|date=2017-08-01|title=Men in pink collars: Stereotype threat and disengagement among male teachers and child protection workers|journal=European Journal of Social Psychology|language=en|volume=47|issue=5|pages=553–565|doi=10.1002/ejsp.2246|hdl=11343/292953|issn=1099-0992|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Men going into positions such as teaching, nursing, and childcare faced many negative stereotypes in these lines of work, as men have traditionally been viewed as professional, strong, and holding dominant attitudes.
According to the 2016 [[United States Census]] analyzed in Barnes, et al.'s research paper, approximately 78% of men were employed in cleaning and maintenance, engineering and science, production and transportation, protective services, and construction. Only 25% were in healthcare support, personal care, education, office administration support, and social services.<ref name=":22"/>
== Men in pink-collar jobs ==
Steele's research concludes that ongoing hostility will result in lower workplace performance and employment retention of men in traditional pink-collar occupations.<ref name=":1" /> Although men in a woman-dominated professional environment face [[Stereotype|stereotyping]], they are still likely to receive higher praise, a higher salary, more opportunities, and more promotions.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Kalokerinos|first1=Elise K.|last2=Kjelsaas|first2=Kathleen|last3=Bennetts|first3=Steven|last4=Hippel|first4=Courtney von|date=2017|title=Men in pink collars: Stereotype threat and disengagement among male teachers and child protection workers|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ejsp.2246|journal=European Journal of Social Psychology|language=en|volume=47|issue=5|pages=553–565|doi=10.1002/ejsp.2246|hdl=11343/292953|issn=1099-0992|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Men who have worked in pink-collar jobs for longer periods of time are less likely to quit their profession or notice stereotyping, while recently hired men have a smaller retention rate.<ref name=":1" /> [[Australian Bureau of Statistics|The Australian Bureau of Statistics]] determined that less than 20% of elementary school teachers were men.<ref name=":1" />
== See also ==
* [[Blue-collar worker]]
* [[Designation of workers by collar color]]
* [[Office lady]]
* [[White-collar worker]]
* [[Women's work]]
* [[Glass escalator]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Bibliography==
* Gourley, Catherine (2008). ''Gibson Girls and Suffragists: Perceptions of Women from 1900 to 1918'' (Minneapolis, MN: Twenty-First Century Books) {{ISBN|978-0-8225-7150-6}}
* Humowitz, Carol; Weissman, Michelle (1978). ''A History of Women in America'' (New York: Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith) {{ISBN|0-553-20762-8}}
* {{cite book |title=Holding Their Own |last=Ware |first=Susan |year=1982 |publisher=G.K. Hall & Co |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-8057-9900-2}}
* {{cite book |title=Women and the American Experience |last=Woloch |first=Nancy |year=1984 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |location=New York |isbn=978-0-394-53515-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/womenamericanexp00wolo }}
==External links==
{{wiktionary|pink-collar}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050505194045/http://bartleby.com/61/52/P0315200.html The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition]
* [http://www.worlddata.com/Home.html Workers in the Pink Collar Market Place]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090209072059/http://www.womenwork.org/policy/factwomenwork.htm Women Work! Women in the Workforce]
* [http://www.depts.drew.edu/wmst/studentRes/statistics.htm Statistics on Women]
* [http://www.9to5.org 9to5, National Association of Working Women]
{{Social class}}
{{Employment}}
[[Category:1970s neologisms]]
[[Category:Office work]]
[[Category:Social classes]]
[[Category:Employment classifications]]
[[Category:Working class]]
[[Category:Feminist economics]]
[[Category:Feminist terminology]]