View source for Presidio

{{Short description|Fort type}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:Peñafiel, Valladolid, Spain - panoramio.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Peñafiel Castle]], both Arab and Spanish fortification]]
A '''presidio''' (''jail, fortification'')<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dle.rae.es/?id=U6gCCiy|title=presidio — Diccionario de la lengua española, Edición del Tricentenario|website=RAE|language=es|access-date=October 28, 2017}}</ref> was a fortified base established by the [[Spanish Empire]] between the 16th and 18th centuries in areas under their control or influence. The term is derived from the [[Latin]] word ''praesidium'' meaning ''protection'' or ''defense''.
In the [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Philippines]], the presidios were outposts of the Christian defense against Islamic raids. In the Americas, the [[Fortification|fortresses]] were built to protect against raids by [[pirate]]s, rival colonial powers, and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]].
Later in western North America, with independence, the Mexicans garrisoned the Spanish presidios on the northern frontier and followed the same pattern in unsettled frontier regions such as the [[Presidio of Sonoma|Presidio de Sonoma]], at [[Sonoma, California]], and the [[Presidio de Calabasas]], in [[Arizona]].
In western North America, a ''rancho del rey'' or ''king{{'}}s ranch'' would be established a short distance outside a presidio. This was a tract of land assigned to the presidio to furnish pasturage to the horses and other beasts of burden of the garrison.  Mexico called this facility "rancho nacional".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/rancho.html#presidios |title=Ranchos of California: Extracts from: Grants of land in California made by Spanish or Mexican authorities, by Cris Perez Boundary Determination Office State Lands Commission Boundary Investigation Unit August 23, 1982. Berkeley Library website. |access-date=April 17, 2011 |archive-date=February 2, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202213123/http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/rancho.html#presidios |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Presidios were only accessible to Spanish military and soldiers.
==Canada==
*[[Fort San Miguel]]
==Chile==
{{further|La Frontera, Chile|Army of Arauco}}
==Italy==
{{Main|State of the Presidi}}
Several fortresses formerly held by the [[Republic of Siena]] were acquired by Spain following the latter's demise, by treaty between [[Philip II of Spain]] and [[Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany]] on 3 July 1557, to form what became known as the ''Estado de los Presidios''. They were held by Spain until the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], when they came under Austrian ownership, and were administered from [[Naples]].
*[[Porto Ercole]]
*[[Porto Santo Stefano]]
*[[Orbetello]]
*[[Talamone]]
*[[Ansedonia]]
*[[Giannutri]]
*[[Porto Azzurro]]
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Porto Ercole - Vista fortezza dalla rocca.JPG|Forte Filippo (Philip II Fortress), [[Porto Ercole]]
File:Forte Stella Porto Ercole (GR).jpg|Forte Stella, [[Porto Ercole]]
File:Palazzo dei Governanti Porto Ercole (GR).jpg|Governors Palace, [[Porto Ercole]]
</gallery>
==Mexico==
Few presidios were established in the present-day desert frontier regions in northern Mexico to control and confine the existing rebellious indigenous tribes.<ref>"Spanish policymakers also decided to set up a line of presidios stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific. This presidial line was very close to today's international border between Mexico and the United States." Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (p. 198). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.</ref> Captured indigenous warriors were confined and enslaved at the presidio.<ref>"As the eighteenth century unfolded, military garrisons and soldiers superseded the missions as the lynchpins of Spain's efforts to stabilize the frontier. With the new approach came new forms of coercion. The word “presidio” captures the dual purpose of garrison and prison." Reséndez, Andrés. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (p. 205). Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kindle Edition.</ref> Presidios was used to protect the colonial silver ship from rebellious raids from Indians in [[Camino Real de Tierra Adentro]], mainly in [[Zacatecas]] and [[Guanajuato]], starting new settlements.
===Aguascalientes===
* The Presidio de las Bocas and later '''Presidio de las Bocas de Gallardo''', founded in 1570 in [[Asientos]]. Today reconverted into the '''hacienda de Santa María de Gallardo'''.
* The Presidio de Ciénega Grande, founded in 1570 in [[Asientos]]. Today reconverted into the '''hacienda Ciénega Grande'''.
===Baja California Sur===
* The [[Misión de Nuestra Señora de Loreto Conchó#Founding|Real Presidio de Loreto]], founded in 1697 in [[Loreto, Baja California Sur]].
* The [[Misión Estero de las Palmas de San José del Cabo Añuití|Presidio San José del Cabo]], founded in 1735 in [[San José del Cabo]]
===Chihuahua===
* The [[Presidio de El Paso del Río Grande del Norte]] (1683–1773), at Ciudad Juárez, across the river from [[El Paso, Texas]].  Later relocated south in 1773 to [[Carrizal, Chihuahua|Carrizal]].
* The [[Janos, Chihuahua|Presidio de San Felipe y Santiago de Janos]] (1691–?), in [[Janos, Chihuahua|Janos]].
* The [[Presidio de Casas Grandes]] (1686), was relocated to Janos in 1691.
* The [[Presidio de San Francisco de Conchos]], founded in 1685 in [[San Francisco de Conchos]].<ref name="sheridan" />
* The [[Presidio de San Bartolomé]] (?–1710), located 20&nbsp;km east of [[Parral, Chihuahua|Parral]]. Replaced by flying squadron operating from the Post of Valle de San Bartolomé (1710–?).
* The [[Presidio de San Carlos de Cerro Gordo]], founded in 1772 in [[Manuel Benavides]].
* The [[Presidio de Nuestra Señora de las Caldas de Guajoquilla]], founded in 1752 in [[Jiménez, Chihuahua|Jiménez]]
* The [[Presidio de San Fernando de Carrizal]] (1758–?)
===Coahuila===
* The [[Presidio del Santísimo Sacramento del Valle de Santa Rosa]], founded in 1780 in [[Santa Rosa de Múzquiz]]
* The [[Presidio San Juan Bautista del Río Grande]], founded around 1703 in '''San Juan Bautista''', now the present-day [[Guerrero, Coahuila]]
* The [[Presidio San Antonio Bucareli de la Babia]], founded in 1774 in [[Cuatro Ciénegas]]
===Durango===
* The [[Presidio de Santa Catalina de Tepehuanes]] (1620–1690s?), in [[Santa Catarina de Tepehuanes]].
* The Presidio [[Concepción del Pasaje de Cuencamé]] (1685), on [[Rio Nazas]] northwest of [[Cuencamé, Durango|Cuencamé]].<ref name="sheridan">{{cite book |last1=Sheridan |first1=Thomas E. |title=Landscapes of Fraud: Mission Tumacácori, the Baca Float, and the Betrayal of the O'odham |date=26 May 2016 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=978-0-8165-3441-8 |page=29 |language=en}}</ref>
* The [[Presidio de San Pedro del Gallo]] (1683s), in [[San Pedro del Gallo]].<ref name="sheridan" />
* The [[Presidio de Santiago de Mapimí]] (1715), in [[Mapimí, Durango|Mapimí]].
* The [[Presidio de San Miguel de Cerrogordo]] (1648–1767) in [[Villa Hidalgo, Durango|Villa Hidalgo]].
===Guanajuato===
* The Presidio de San Miguel el Grande, founded in 1542 in [[San Miguel de Allende]].
* The Presidio de León, founded in 1576 in [[León, Guanajuato|León]].
* The Presidio de Santa Fe de Guanaxuato, founded in 1576 in [[Guanajuato (city)|Guanajuato]].
* The Presidio de la Purisíma Concepción de Zalaya, founded in 1570 in [[Celaya]].
* The Presidio de León, founded in 1576 in [[León, Guanajuato|León]].
* The [[Hacienda San Cristóbal]], founded in 1614 in '''San Cristóbal''' by the Viceroy [[Diego Fernández de Córdoba, 1st Marquess of Guadalcázar|Diego Fernández de Córdoba]], now the present-day [[León, Guanajuato]].
===Hidalgo===
* The Presidio de San Francisco, founded in 1522 in [[Zimapán]]
===Jalisco===
* The Presidio [[Jamay]], founded in 1529.
* The Presidio Ojuelos, founded in 1570, which developed into the city of [[Ojuelos]].
* The Presidio de Santa María de los Lagos, founded in 1563 in [[Lagos de Moreno]].
* El Fuerte de la Isla, founded in 1817 in {{ill|Mezcala Island|es|Isla de Mezcala}}.
===Nuevo León===
* The [[Presidio San Gregorio de Cerralvo]], founded in 1626 in [[Cerralvo Municipality|Cerralvo]].
===Querétaro===
* The Presidio de San Juan Bautista del Río, founded in 1531 in [[San Juan del Río]]
* The Presidio [[Maxcala]], founded in 1566 by the [[Otomi]] with Spanish Royal Writ to protect the {{ill|Ruta de la Plata (New Spain)|lt=Ruta de la Plata|es|Ruta de la Plata (México)}} in [[Pedro Escobedo]]
* The Presidio Jalpan, founded in 1751 in [[Jalpan de Serra]]
===San Luis Potosí===
* The Presidio de Santiago de Los Valles de Oxitipa, founded in 1533 in [[Ciudad Valles]]
===Sonora===
* The Presidio de San Pedro de la Conquista, founded in 1726 in [[Hermosillo]]. Today the '''former Hermosillo Townhall museum'''.
* The [[Presidio Santa Gertrudis del Altar]], founded in 1755 in [[Altar, Sonora]]
* The [[Presidio de Santa Rosa de Corodéguachi]], founded in 1692, near the [[Sonora]]/[[Arizona]] border and later moved to [[Fronteras, Sonora]]
* The Presidio [[San Miguel de Horcasitas]], founded in 1749
===Zacatecas===
* The Presidio Tlaltenango, founded in 1530 in [[Tlaltenango de Sánchez Román Municipality|Tlaltenango]].
* The Presidio Xuchipilan, founded in 1530 in [[Juchipila]].
* The Presidio de Espíritu Santo de Guadalajara (1532–1533) near the present-day [[Nochistlán]], destroyed by the [[Tlaltenango de Sánchez Román Municipality|Tlaltenango]] Caxcan in 1533.
* The Presidio de Fresnillo, founded in 1554 in [[Fresnillo]].
* The Presidio de Jerez de la Frontera, founded in 1570 in [[Jerez de García Salinas]].
* The Presidio Palmillas (1570–?), near the present-day [[Ojocaliente]].
* The Presidio Malpaso, founded reconverting an ''estancia'' in 1580 in [[Villanueva, Zacatecas|Villanueva]]. Today the '''former hacienda de Malpaso'''.
* The Presidio de San Pedro de Chalchihuites, founded in 1591 in [[Chalchihuites]].
* The Presidio de Sacramento y Real de Minas de Ojocaliente de Bastidas, founded in 1620 in [[Ojocaliente]].
<gallery widths="200px" heights="160px">
File:Misión de Nuestra Señora de Loreto Conchó (8776614998).jpg|Presidio, [[Misión de Nuestra Señora de Loreto Conchó]]
File:PlazaPrincipalCabos.JPG|[[Misión Estero de las Palmas de San José del Cabo Añuití|Presidio San José del Cabo]]
File:FACHADA DE PRESIDENCIA DE CERRALVO.jpg|Former [[Presidio San Gregorio de Cerralvo]] reconverted into the town hall
File:Antiguo Palacio Municipal Villa de Seris-1.JPG|Former [[Hermosillo, Sonora]] town hall, that was the Presidio de San Pedro de la Conquista
File:Fuerte de Ojuelos3.jpg|Presidio [[Ojuelos de Jalisco|Ojuelos]]
File:Isla de Mezcala 11.jpg|Presidio, {{ill|Mezcala Island|es|Isla de Mezcala}}
File:Fresnillo - Palacio municipal.jpg|Former [[Fresnillo]] city hall, that was the Presidio de Fresnillo
</gallery>
==North Africa==
{{Main|European enclaves in North Africa before 1830}}
[[File:Ceuta Spain.jpg|thumb|[[Royal Walls of Ceuta]]]]
After the [[Granada War]] and the completion of the Spanish ''[[Reconquista]]'', the [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Catholic Monarchs]] took their fight across the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], as the Portuguese had done several generations earlier with the conquest of [[Ceuta]] in 1415. The establishment of Spanish military outposts on the North African coast echoed earlier endeavors by the [[Kingdom of Sicily]] in the 12th century (and again in [[Djerba]] under [[Frederick III of Sicily]]) and the [[Kingdom of France]] in the 13th century ([[Eighth Crusade]] of 1270). During the period of [[Iberian Union]] between 1580 and 1640, the Spanish Crown gained Ceuta and the Portuguese outposts on the Atlantic Coast, such as [[Tangier]], [[El Jadida|Mazagão/El Jadida]] and [[Casablanca]]; but of these, it only retained Ceuta by the [[Treaty of Lisbon (1668)]].
The Spanish North African ''presidios'' are listed here in geographical sequence, from West to East, and including neither Spain's Atlantic settlements in the Moroccan far South (e.g. [[Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña]]) nor outposts gained after 1830 (e.g. the [[Chafarinas Islands]]).
*[[Mehdya, Morocco]] (''La Mamora'' or ''San Miguel de Ultramar''), 1614–1681
*[[Larache]], 1610–1689
*[[Ceuta]], acquired from Portugal in 1668
*[[Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera]], 1508–1522 and since 1564
*[[Alhucemas Islands]], since 1559
*[[Cazaza]], 1505–1533
*[[Melilla]], since 1497
*[[Honaine]], briefly in 1534
*[[Mers El Kébir]] (''Mazalquivir''), 1505–1708 and 1732–1792
*[[Oran]], 1509–1708 and 1732–1792
*[[Algiers]] (''Argel''), 1510–1516; [[Peñón of Algiers|Peñón islet]] until 1529
*[[Béjaïa]] (''Bugia''), 1510–1555
*[[Annaba]] (''Bona''), 1535–1540
*[[Bizerte]] (''Bizerta''), 1535–1574
*[[La Goulette]] (''La Goleta''), 1535–1574
*[[Tunis]] (''Túnez''), 1573–1574 (protectorate from 1535 to 1569)
*[[Sousse]] (''Susa''), 1537–1574
*[[Monastir, Tunisia|Monastir]], 1550–1554
*[[Mahdia]] (''Mahdía''), 1550–1553
*[[Djerba]] (''Yerba''), 1521–1523 and 1551–1560
*[[Spanish Tripoli|Tripoli]] (''Trípoli''), 1510–1530 then granted to the [[Knights Hospitaller]] who [[Hospitaller Tripoli|held it]] until 1551
<gallery widths="200px" heights="160px">
File:Velez de la Gomera.jpg|[[Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera|Vélez de la Gomera]]
File:Melilla un día de regatas.jpg|[[Melilla]]
File:Spanish fortress mers El kebir.jpg|[[Mers El Kébir]]
File:Bordj Moussa.jpeg|Spanish fort (''Bordj Moussa'') in [[Béjaïa]]
File:LA GOULETTE 1.JPG|[[La Goulette]]
File:Chikly avec le Djebel Zaghouan en arrière-plan.jpg|Spanish fort of [[Chikly]] Island on the [[Lake of Tunis]]
File:Tripoli castle2.jpg|[[Red Castle of Tripoli]]
</gallery>
==Philippines==
{{main|Spanish colonial fortifications in the Philippines}}
[[File:Locations of Spanish Presidios in the Philippines.png|thumb|right|Map of the Presidios built in the Philippines during the 1600s, in ''Fortress of Empire'' by Rene Javellana, S. J. (1997)]]
===Luzon===
*The [[Fort Santiago|Presidio de Santiago]], founded in 1593 in [[Intramuros]], Manila
*The [[Fort San Felipe (Cavite)|Presidio de San Felipe (Cavite)]], founded in 1609 in San Roque, [[Cavite City|Cavite]]
===Mindanao===
*The [[Fort Pilar|Presidio de Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Zaragoza]], founded in 1635 in [[Zamboanga City|Zamboanga]]
===Visayas===
*The [[Presidio de Lawis]] in [[Madridejos, Cebu]], the current structure is the oldest in the country laid down around 1628–1630
*The [[Fort San Pedro (Iloilo)|Presidio (Fort) de San Pedro (Iloilo)]], founded in 1616 in [[Iloilo City]]
*The [[Fort San Pedro|Presidio de San Pedro (Cebu)]], founded in 1630 in [[Cebu City|Cebu]]
==United States==
===Arizona===
[[File:Presidio.jpg|right|thumb|[[Presidio Santa Cruz de Terrenate]], Arizona]]
* The [[Presidio San Ignacio de Tubac]], founded in 1752 in [[Tubac, Arizona|Tubac]]
* The [[Presidio San Augustin del Tucson]], founded in 1775 in [[Tucson, Arizona|Tucson]]
* The [[Presidio Santa Cruz de Terrenate]], founded in 1775 near the present-day [[Tombstone, Arizona|Tombstone]]
* The [[Presidio de Calabasas]], founded in 1837 near the present-day [[Tumacacori, Arizona|Tumacacori]]
* The [[Presidio de San Bernardino]], founded in 1776 near the present-day [[Douglas, Arizona|Douglas]] (Gerald 1968)
* The [[Presidio San Felipe de Gracia Real de Terrenate]]<ref>{{cite web |title=San Felipe de Gracia Real de Terrenate – Tumacácori National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/tuma/learn/historyculture/san-felipe-de-gracia-real-de-terrenate.htm |website=www.nps.gov |access-date=12 February 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
===California===
* The [[Presidio of Monterey, California|Presidio Real de San Carlos de Monterey]], founded in 1770. Its rancho del rey was what became [[Rancho Nacional]]. It is currently housing the [[Defense Language Institute]], in [[Monterey, California|Monterey]]
* The [[Presidio of San Diego|Presidio Real de San Diego]], founded in 1769 in San Diego, its rancho del rey was what became [[Rancho de la Nación]].
* The [[Presidio of San Francisco|Presidio Real de San Francisco]], founded in 1776 and now part of the [[Golden Gate National Recreation Area]] in San Francisco. Its rancho del rey was what became [[Rancho Buri Buri]].
* The [[Presidio of Santa Barbara|Presidio Real de Santa Bárbara]], founded in 1782 in [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]].  Its rancho del rey was what became [[Rancho San Julian]].
* The [[Presidio of Sonoma|Presidio de Sonoma]], founded by Mexico in 1836 in [[Sonoma, California|Sonoma]].  Its rancho nacional was what became [[Rancho Suscol]].
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Presido chapel1.jpg|Interior of the reconstructed chapel of the [[Santa Barbara Presidio]]
File:Presidio of San Diego 1820 map.jpg|[[Presidio of San Diego]], California
</gallery>
===Florida===
'''Source:'''<ref name=childers/>
* The Presidio San Augustin, founded in 1565, which developed into the city of [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]], ceded to [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] in 1763, regained 20 years later, and transferred to the United States in 1821
* The Presidio San Mateo, founded in 1565 on the ruins of [[Fort Caroline]] near today's [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]], recaptured and destroyed by the French in 1568
* The Presidio [[Ais people|Ais]], founded in 1565 on the [[Indian River Lagoon]], abandoned after one month
* The Presidio Santa Lucia, founded in 1565 near [[Cape Canaveral]], abandoned four months later
* The Presidio San Antonio de Padua, founded in 1566 at [[Mound Key Archaeological State Park|Calos]], capital of the [[Calusa]], abandoned in 1569
* The Presidio [[Tocobaga]], founded in 1567 on [[Tampa Bay]], destroyed by the Tocobagas within ten months
* The Presidio [[Tequesta]], founded in 1567 on the site of what is now Miami, abandoned in 1568
* The [[Presidio Santa Maria de Galve]], founded in 1696, near [[Fort Barrancas]] at present-day [[Naval Air Station Pensacola]]; captured by French in 1719, Spanish relocated to Presidio Bahía San José de Nueva Asturias (see below)
* The Presidio Bahía San José de Valladares, founded in 1701 on [[St. Joseph Bay]], captured by French in 1718
* The Presidio San Marcos de Apalachee, founded in 1718 at the existing port of San Marcos, which developed into the town of [[St. Marks, Florida|St. Marks]], ceded to Great Britain in 1763, regained 20 years later, and transferred to the United States in 1821
* The Presidio Bahía San José de Nueva Asturias, founded in 1719 on [[St. Joseph Peninsula|St. Joseph Point]], abandoned when Spanish regained Pensacola Bay area from French in 1722, Spanish relocated to Presidio Isla Santa Rosa Punta de Siguenza (see below)
* The Presidio Isla Santa Rosa Punta de Siguenza, founded in 1722 on [[Santa Rosa Island, Florida|Santa Rosa Island]], destroyed by a hurricane in 1755, Spanish relocated to Presidio San Miguel de Panzacola (see below)
* The Presidio San Miguel de Panzacola, founded in 1755, which developed into the city of [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]], ceded to Great Britain in 1763, regained 20 years later, and transferred to the United States in 1821
===Georgia===
'''Source:'''<ref name=childers/>
* The Presidio [[Guale]], founded in 1566, abandoned three months later
* The Presidio [[San Pedro de Mocama|San Pedro de Tacatacuru]], founded in 1569 on [[Cumberland Island]], abandoned in 1573
===Louisiana===
*The [[Los Adaes|Presidio Nuestra Señora del Pilar de los Adaes]], founded in 1721 near the present-day [[Robeline, Louisiana|Robeline]]
===New Mexico===
[[File:BattleofCanada.jpg|right|thumb|[[Presidio Santa Cruz de la Cañada]], New Mexico]]
* The [[Presidio Santa Cruz de la Cañada]], in [[Santa Cruz, New Mexico|Santa Cruz]]
===South Carolina===
* The Presidio [[Santa Elena (Spanish Florida)|Santa Elena]], founded in 1566 on [[Parris Island, South Carolina|Parris Island]], destroyed by Native Americans in 1576, re-established in 1577, abandoned in 1587<ref name=childers>{{cite journal|last=Childers|first=Ronald Wayne|title=The Presidio System in Spanish Florida 1565–1763|journal=Historical Archaeology|year=2004|volume=38|issue=3|pages=24–32|doi=10.1007/BF03376651|jstor=25617178|s2cid=160809833}}</ref>
===Texas===
* The [[Presidio Fuerte de Santa Cruz del Cibolo]], founded in 1734 and re-established in 1771 near [[Cestohowa, Texas]] in [[Karnes County, Texas]], (between San Antonio and Goliad).
* The [[Presidio San Antonio de Béxar]], founded in 1718 in [[San Antonio]]
* The [[Presidio La Bahía|Presidio Nuestra Señora de Loreto]], founded in 1721, near Lavaca Bay, now in [[Goliad, Texas|Goliad]]
* The [[Presidio San Luis de las Amarillas]] San Saba, founded in 1772 near the present-day [[Menard, Texas|Menard]]
* The [[Presidio de la Junta de los Ríos Norte y Conchos]], founded in 1760 just southwest of present-day [[Presidio, Texas|Presidio]]
[[File:Fort Independence (Goliad) 1836.jpg|center|thumb|[[Presidio La Bahía]] in [[Goliad, Texas|Goliad]]]]
==See also==
* [[Lists of Spanish colonial missions of the Roman Catholic Church in the Americas]]
* [[Marqués de Rubí]]
* [[Spanish colonial pueblos and villas in North America]]
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
== References and further reading==
* Gerald, Rex E. (1968). ''Spanish Presidios of the Late Eighteenth Century in Northern New Spain''.  Santa Fe, NM: Museum of New Mexico Press.
* Javellana, Rene, S. J. ''Fortress of Empire''. Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1997.
* Moorhead, Max L. ''The Presidio: Bastion of the Spanish Borderlands''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1975.
* Williams, J. S. "Appendix: Presidios of Northern New Spain". ''Historical Archaeology'' 38, 2004.
{{Spanish Colonial architecture}}
{{Spanish Empire}}
{{Fortifications}}
[[Category:Architecture in Spain]]
[[Category:Spanish forts in the United States]]