View source for Projectile use by non-human organisms

{{Short description|Non-human use of projectiles}}
{{Lead too short|date=August 2022}}
{{Use American English|date=August 2015}}
[[File:Archerfish (PSF).png|thumb|right|Illustration of an [[archerfish]] shooting water at an insect on a hanging branch.]]
Although [[projectile]]s are commonly used in [[Violence|human conflict]], '''projectile use by [[organisms]]''' other than humans is relatively rare. However, some organisms are capable of using various different types of projectiles for defense or [[predation]].
==Animals==
===Liquid projectiles===
{{further information|Spraying (animal behavior)}}
[[File:African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) spraying water.jpg|thumb|An [[African elephant]] spraying water]]
Most projectiles used by terrestrial animals are liquids. Among invertebrates there are a number of examples. [[Velvet worm]]s can squirt out a slimy adhesive fluid from glands on the sides of their head, and use it to trap their prey. The [[spitting spider]]s ''[[Scytodes]]'' can spit a venomous sticky fluid that traps its victims and also poisons them.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/notrocketscience/2009/04/24/singaporean-spiders-spit-venomous-glue-work-together-eat-each-other/ |title=Singaporean spiders spit venomous glue, work together, eat each other &#124; Not Exactly Rocket Science &#124; Discover Magazine |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=278 |pages=74–81 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2009.00555.x |publisher=Blogs.discovermagazine.com |access-date=2012-10-21|year=2009 |last1=Yap |first1=L.-M. Y. L. |last2=Li |first2=D. }}</ref> The [[bombardier beetle]] is unusual by using a violent [[exothermic]] chemical reaction to launch a boiling noxious chemical spray in a rapid burst of pulses from special glands in its abdomen, accompanied with a popping sound. The ''[[Anthia]]'' (oogpister beetle) will fire [[formic acid]] at attackers, probably extracting the formic acid from the ants that it eats. The [[devil-rider]] [[stick insect]]s (''[[Anisomorpha]]'') can fire [[terpenes]] from glands on the [[metathorax]] that can cause an intense burning irritation of the eyes and mouth of potential predators. [[Wood ant]]s will spray acid at attackers.  A type of [[planthopper]] of [[Madagascar]] is able to flick small balls of [[honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]], this attracts [[day gecko]]s that feed on the honeydew and whose presence may deter predators from approaching the sap-sucking insect.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7247472.stm |title=Science/Nature &#124; Gecko 'begs' insect for honeydew |work=BBC News |date=2008-02-16 |access-date=2012-10-21}}</ref> [[Termite]]s of the subfamily [[Nasutitermitinae]] can project a sticky fluid from a nozzle on their heads. They can use this [[fontanellar gun]] accurately, over a range of many centimeters, even though the termite is blind, possibly using auditory or olfactory cues instead.
A number of vertebrates also use liquid projectiles. The [[archerfish]] will squirt water from its mouth to dislodge invertebrates from overhanging branches. Some [[Diplodactylinae|diptodactyline]] [[gecko]]s can fire a black or pale yellow sticky fluid out of glands in their tail for a distance of about a meter, and with good aim. This fluid has a musky unpleasant odour and although it is not toxic it may discourage predators, in particular the big arthropods that prey on these geckos.<ref>{{cite web|last=Naish |first=Darren |url=http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2010/04/squirting_sticky_fluid_having.php#more |title=Squirting sticky fluid, having a sensitive knob, etc. (gekkotans part III) – Tetrapod Zoology |publisher=Scienceblogs.com |date=2010-04-28 |access-date=2012-10-21}}</ref> The [[spitting cobra]] can squirt venom from forward-facing holes in its fangs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/notrocketscience/2010/05/14/how-spitting-cobras-shoot-for-the-eyes/#more-1611 |title=How spitting cobras shoot for the eyes &#124; Not Exactly Rocket Science &#124; Discover Magazine |publisher=Blogs.discovermagazine.com |access-date=2012-10-21|date=2010-05-14 }}</ref> It aims for its victim's eyes, spitting up to 1.5&nbsp;m. The venom may cause blindness. The [[Mangshan pitviper]] is also reported to spit venom.
A bird that uses liquid projectiles in defense is the [[southern giant petrel]] which produces a [[stomach oil]] made up of wax esters and triglycerides that are stored in the proventriculus and can be projectile vomited on predators. Other [[petrel]]s such as the [[fulmar]] can also squirt oils from their mouths as a defense. They can squirt oils with accuracy up to a distance of 1 to 2 meters. The oil mats the feathers of birds together and destroys their waterproofing abilities, so oiled birds may die from chilling or drowning, although fulmars seem able to remove the oil from themselves by preening. Birds ranging from gulls to sea-eagles have died after being squirted by fulmars.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Naish |first=Darren |url=http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/tetrapod-zoology/2012/03/14/living-pelagic-life-petrels-part-ii/ |title=Living the pelagic life: of oil, enemies, giant eggs and telomeres (petrels part II) |magazine=Scientific American |access-date=2012-10-21}}</ref> Some species of [[penguin]] expel liquid feces in a projectile manner, to a distance of up to about 50&nbsp;cm. They are believed to do this because during the brooding season, when penguins are sitting on their nests, they avoid leaving their nests and thereby leaving their eggs open to predation and thus to maintain a clean nest they evolved the ability to project their feces.<ref>{{cite web |last=Batts |first=Shelley |url=http://scienceblogs.com/retrospectacle/2007/07/science_vault_projectile_pengu_1.php |title=Science Vault: Projectile Penguin Poop Pressures – Retrospectacle: A Neuroscience Blog |publisher=Scienceblogs.com |date=2007-07-07 |access-date=2012-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811225416/http://scienceblogs.com/retrospectacle/2007/07/science_vault_projectile_pengu_1.php |archive-date=2011-08-11 }}</ref>
Among mammals, [[skunk]]s can eject a noxious fluid from their [[anal gland]]s. It is not only foul smelling, but can cause skin irritation and, if it gets in the eyes, temporary blindness. When it feels threatened a [[camel]] will bring up their stomach contents, along with saliva, and project it out towards the threat to distract, surprise, or bother the threat.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-camel.html |title=San Diego Zoo's Animal Bytes: Camel |publisher=Sandiegozoo.org |access-date=2012-10-21}}{{dead link|date=December 2023}}</ref>
===Solid projectiles===
[[File:Brachypelma smithi, urticating hairs.JPG|thumb|Adult female ''[[Brachypelma smithi]]'', showing a bald patch after kicking hairs off her abdomen.]]
Some New World [[tarantulas]] have a dense covering of hairs called [[urticating hair]]s on the abdomen that they sometimes use as protection against enemies.<ref name=Cooke1972>Cooke, J.A.L., Roth, V.D., Miller, F.H. (1972). The urticating hairs of theraphosid spiders. ''American Museum Novitates'' 2498.</ref><ref>[http://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/2705/1/N2498.pdf PDF (12 Mb)]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The urticating hairs of theraphosid spiders |journal=American Museum Novitates |issue=2498 |hdl=2246/2705 |hdl-access=free |date=July 21, 1972 |last1=Miller |first1=Frederick H. |last2=Roth |first2=Vincent D. |last3=Cooke |first3=John A. L.}}</ref> Species with urticating hairs can kick these hairs off; they are flicked into the air at a target using their back pairs of legs. These fine hairs are barbed and designed to irritate and can be lethal to small animals such as rodents. The symptoms range from a burning itch to a minor rash, from being lethal to simply being a deterrent. With humans, they can cause irritation to the eyes, nose, and skin, and more dangerously, the lungs and airways, if inhaled.  In some cases, tarantula hairs have caused permanent damage to human eyes.{{Citation needed|date=June 2012}} Urticating hairs do not grow back, but are replaced with each moult.
Another invertebrate, the [[antlion]], also makes use of solid projectiles. The antlion lies at the bottom of a sloping pit that it digs in the sand. Small prey slip into the pit on the loose substrate. If the prey crawls up the slopes of the pit, the antlion throws sand at the prey, which may dislodge it and send it back down the pit.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Orientation towards prey in antlions: efficient use of wave propagation in sand. |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |year=2007 |volume=210 |issue=19 |pages=3337–3343 |doi=10.1242/jeb.004473 |pmid=17872987 |first1=Arnold |last1=Fertin |first2=Jérôme |last2=Casas|doi-access=free }}</ref>
In gastropods, [[Cone snail|cone snails]] have modified [[radula]] tooth which is stored in the radular sac and at the end of [[proboscis]], acting like a harpoon. Their "harpoon" is venomous, which assists cone snail to paralyze or kill the prey before eating it.
A number of vertebrate species also make use of solid projectiles. Among birds the [[hornbill]] uses projectile motion to eat food. The hornbill's beak typically only contacts at the tip, and it has a short tongue. To swallow food the hornbill instead throws the food from the tip of its long bill backwards into the throat.<ref>{{cite web |last=Naish |first=Darren |url=http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/06/hornbill-introduction.php#more |title=An introduction to hornbills – Tetrapod Zoology |publisher=Scienceblogs.com |date=2011-06-22 |access-date=2012-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503171930/http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2011/06/hornbill-introduction.php#more |archive-date=2012-05-03 }}</ref> One example of solid projectile use among mammals is the [[California ground squirrel]], which is known to distract predators such as the [[rattlesnake]] and [[gopher snake]] from locating their nest [[burrow]]s by kicking sand into their eyes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Coss| first=Richard G.| year=1997| title=Individual Variation in the Antisnake Behavior of California Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi)| journal=Journal of Mammalogy| volume=78| issue=2| pages=294–310| doi=10.2307/1382883| jstor=1382883| doi-access=free}}</ref> A wild female [[African elephant]] has also been observed to throw various materials at an interfering rhino.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.scopus.com/record/display.url?eid=2-s2.0-0030617115&origin=inward&txGid=BDO-zg_Ws0yu_xH3qqdxDFw:2 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20130201202330/http://www.scopus.com/record/display.url?eid=2-s2.0-0030617115&origin=inward&txGid=BDO-zg_Ws0yu_xH3qqdxDFw:2 | archive-date=2013-02-01 | title=Scopus preview - Scopus - Document details}}</ref> [[Orca]]s have been observed to throw seal prey using their tail flukes in apparent play behavior.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DWsN63PRCW8  |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/DWsN63PRCW8 |archive-date=2021-12-15 |url-status=live|title=Killer Whale vs. Sea Lions |date=October 2007 |publisher=YouTube |access-date=2012-10-21}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Some [[primate]]s can [[throw]] objects such as rocks, sticks, and feces as projectiles. Non-human primates that are known to throw are [[bonobo]]s,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Claudia Jordan |title=Object manipulation and tool-use in captive pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus)  |date=2006-04-03 |doi=10.1016/s0047-2484(82)80029-8 |volume=11 |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |pages=35–39}}</ref> [[chimpanzee]]s,<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 2744291|title = Chimpanzee Hand Preference in Throwing and Infant Cradling: Implications for the Origin of Human Handedness|journal = Current Anthropology|volume = 34|issue = 5|pages = 786–790|last1 = Hopkins|first1 = W. D.|last2 = Bard|first2 = K. A.|last3 = Jones|first3 = A.|last4 = Bales|first4 = S. L.|year = 1993|doi = 10.1086/204224|s2cid = 56032181|url = https://researchportal.port.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/chimpanzee-hand-preference-for-throwing-and-infant-cradling(7bb9e6ed-dee0-42fe-aec7-2aba3fbe1f41).html}}</ref> [[gorilla]]s,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Primates, Volume 40, Number 3 |publisher=SpringerLink |doi=10.1007/BF02557584 |volume=40 |issue=3 |journal=Primates |pages=487–498|year=1999 |last1=Nakamichi |first1=Masayuki |s2cid=41542232 }}</ref> [[orangutan]]s,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Biruté M.F. Galdikas |title= Orang-utan tool-use at Tanjung Puting Reserve, Central Indonesian Borneo (Kalimantan Tengah)  |date=2006-04-03 |doi=10.1016/s0047-2484(82)80028-6 |volume=11 |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |pages=19–33}}</ref> [[capuchin (monkey)|capuchin]]s,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Human Evolution, Volume 9, Number 4 |publisher=SpringerLink |doi=10.1007/BF02435518 |volume=9 |issue=4 |journal=Human Evolution |pages=323–329|year=1994 |last1=Westergaard |first1=G. C. |last2=Suomi |first2=S. J. |s2cid=84810150 }}</ref> certain [[gibbon]]s<ref>{{cite journal|title=Object manipulation to obtain a food reward in hoolock gibbons, Bunopithecus hoolock  |doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.05.013 | volume=71 |issue=3 | journal=Animal Behaviour |pages=621–629|year=2006 |last1=Cunningham |first1=Clare L. |last2=Anderson |first2=James R. |last3=Mootnick |first3=Alan R. |s2cid=53160226 }}</ref> and perhaps some [[baboon]]s<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 1379674|title = Aggressive Object Displays of Captive Baboons|journal = Journal of Mammalogy|volume = 56|issue = 4|pages = 949–950|last1 = Maple|first1 = Terry|year = 1975|doi = 10.2307/1379674|pmid = 1237529}}</ref> and [[Japanese macaque]]s<ref>{{cite journal|title=Stone-throwing by Japanese macaques: form and functional aspects of a group-specific behavioral tradition  | doi = 10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.06.004 | volume=55| issue = 6 |journal=Journal of Human Evolution|pages=989–998|pmid=18715623 | last1 = Leca | first1 = JB | last2 = Nahallage | first2 = CA | last3 = Gunst | first3 = N | last4 = Huffman | first4 = MA| year = 2008 | bibcode = 2008JHumE..55..989L }}</ref> (although not [[rhesus macaques]]).<ref>{{cite journal |title=The uniquely human capacity to throw evolved from a non-throwing primate: an evolutionary dissociation between action and perception |journal=Biology Letters |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=360–365 |date=2007-08-22 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2007.0107 |pmid=17550878 |pmc=2390659 |last1=Wood |first1=Justin N. |last2=Glynn |first2=David D. |last3=Hauser |first3=Marc D. }}</ref> A chimpanzee named [[Santino (chimpanzee)|Santino]] in a Swedish zoo was observed to stockpile stones to be used as missiles against visitors.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/chimpanzee-planned-stone-attacks-on--zoo-visitors-1641018.html |access-date=May 5, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090418130032/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/chimpanzee-planned-stone-attacks-on--zoo-visitors-1641018.html |archive-date=April 18, 2009 |website=[[Independent.co.uk]] |title=Chimpanzee planned stone attacks on zoo visitors - Science, News - the Independent }}</ref>
===Tethered projectiles===
[[File:Chameleon-Stage 03.jpg|thumb|A chameleon launching its tongue at its prey]]
[[Chameleon]]s, [[frog]]s and some [[lungless salamander]]s have [[tongue]]s that act like a tethered projectile. In frogs, the tongue is attached at the front of the mouth and rotates about this attachment as it flips out (thus the top of the tongue at rest becomes the bottom when extended).  In chameleons, the tongue contracts against a tapered [[hyoid]] bone, eventually slipping off and projecting forward at very high speed. Lungless salamanders use a similar method, however, both the tongue and underlying hyoid bone project (in contrast to chameleons, whose hyoid remains fixed while the fleshy portion of the tongue projects).<ref name="Herrel et al. 2009">{{cite journal | title= Are morphological specializations of the hyolingual system in chameleons and salamanders tuned to demands on performance? |author=Herrel, A. |author2=Deban, S.M. |author3=Schaerlaeken, V. |author4=Timmermans, J.-P. |author5=Adriaens, D. |journal=Physiological and Biochemical Zoology | year=2009 | volume=82 | issue= 1 | pages=29–39 | doi=10.1086/589950| pmid= 19007314 | s2cid= 16892331 | url=http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=bin_facpub }}</ref>  In both salamanders and chameleons, the movement is too fast and requires too much mechanical power for muscle alone to provide – instead, muscles slowly pre-load elastic elements such as connective tissue, which can then recoil and release the stored energy at a much higher rate.<ref name="de Groot & van Leeuwen 2004">{{cite journal | title= Evidence for an elastic projection mechanism in the chameleon tongue |author1=de Groot, J.H.  |author2=van Leeuwen, J.L.  |name-list-style=amp | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B | year=2004 | volume=271 |issue=1540 | pages=761–770 | doi=10.1098/rspb.2003.2637|pmid=15209111 |pmc=1691657}}</ref><ref name="Deban et al. 2007">{{cite journal | title= Extremely high-power tongue projection in plethodontid salamanders |author=Deban, S.M. |author2=O'Reilly, J.C. |author3=Dicke, U. |author4=van Leeuwen, J.L. | journal=Journal of Experimental Biology | year=2007 | volume=210 | issue= 4 | pages=655–667 | doi=10.1242/jeb.02664 | pmid=17267651| doi-access=free }}</ref>  In order to retract their tongues over such great distances, the tongue muscles of chameleons have perforated [[Z-disk]]s, allowing each [[sarcomere]] to shorten far greater distances than those of other vertebrates.<ref name="Herrel et al. 2002">{{cite journal | title= Supercontracting muscle: producing tension over extreme muscle lengths |author=Herrel, A. |author2=Meyers, J.J. |author3=Timmermans, J.-P. |author4=Nishikawa, K.C. | journal=Journal of Experimental Biology | year=2002 | volume=205 | issue= Pt 15 | pages=2167–2173| doi= 10.1242/jeb.205.15.2167 | pmid= 12110650 }}</ref>
===Bubbles===
The [[pistol shrimp]] claw has a pistol-like feature made of two parts. A joint allows the "hammer" part to move backward into a right-angled position. When released, it snaps into the other part of the claw, [[Cavitation#Marine life|emitting an enormously powerful wave of bubbles]] capable of stunning larger fish and breaking glass.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Maurice Burton  |author2=Robert Burton  |name-list-style=amp |date=1970 |title=The International Wildlife Encyclopedia, Volume 1 |publisher=[[Marshall Cavendish]] |page=2366}}</ref>
==Plants and fungi==
{{see also|Dehiscence (botany)#Explosive dehiscence|l1=Explosive dehiscence}}
The [[seed]] pods of the [[orange jewelweed]] have projectile seeds that, if ripe, explode out of the pods when they are lightly touched. The seed pods of the [[scotch broom]] also burst open, often with an audible crack, projecting the seeds from the parent plant. Similarly, the fruit of the [[Hura crepitans|sandbox tree]] burst open to disperse seeds, but the reaction is so violent that it can injure nearby people or livestock.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/plant/sandbox-tree|title=sandbox tree {{!}} plant|access-date=2016-08-31}}</ref> Some plants such as the [[dogwood bunchberry]] and [[white mulberry]] will also fling [[pollen]] from their flowers. [[Peat moss]]es are known to explosively launch their spores.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/notrocketscience/2010/07/22/mosses-use-explosive-cannons-and-mushroom-clouds-to-spread-their-spores/#more-2134 |title=Mosses use explosive cannons and mushroom clouds to spread their spores &#124; Not Exactly Rocket Science &#124; Discover Magazine |publisher=Blogs.discovermagazine.com |access-date=2012-10-21|date=2010-07-22 }}</ref>
[[pilobolus crystallinus|Hat-throwing fungi]] fire their spore capsules up to 2&nbsp;m,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Pilobolus_crystallinus |title=BBC Nature - Hat thrower fungus videos, news and facts |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=1970-01-01 |access-date=2012-10-21}}</ref> and the cannonball fungi of the genus ''[[Sphaerobolus]]'', such as ''S. stellatus'', the artillery fungus can throw sticky spore sacs up to 6&nbsp;m horizontally.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Walker | first1 = LB. |name-list-style=vanc| year = 1927 | title = Development and mechanism of discharge in ''Sphaerobolus iowensis'' and ''S. stellatus'' Tode | journal = J. Eli. Mitch. Sci. Soc. | volume = 42 | pages = 151–178 }}</ref><ref name="urlwww.ct.gov">{{cite web |url=http://www.ct.gov/caes/lib/caes/documents/publications/fact_sheets/plant_pathology_and_ecology/sphaerobolus_spp-the_artillery_fungus_04-02-08r.pdf |title=Sphaerobolus spp.—The Artillery Fungus |author=S. M. Douglas |work=The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station |access-date=2008-11-27}}</ref> This species is phototropic, and propels spores towards the nearest source of direct or reflected light, like the sides of brightly colored houses.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nawaz | first1 = M. |name-list-style=vanc| year = 1967 | title = Phototropism in ''Sphaerobolus'' | journal = Biologia | volume = 13 | pages = 5–14 }}</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
==External links==
*[http://educatedearth.net/video.php?id=3938 Nature's Marksmen - a video showing projectile use by archerfish and velvet worms]
[[Category:Ballistics]]
[[Category:Ethology]]