View source for Pukara

{{Short description|Type of prehistoric fort in the Andes}}
{{About|Andean fortresses|the culture|Pukara culture|other uses|Pukara (disambiguation){{!}}Pukara (disambiguation)}}
[[Image:Pukara de Quitor.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Part of the complex [[Pukará de Quitor]] as seen from the inside]]
[[Image:Pucará de Tilcara 01.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Ruins of the [[Pucará de Tilcara]], [[Argentina]]]]
'''Pukara''' ([[Aymara language|Aymara]] and [[Quechuan languages|Quechuan]] "fortress", Hispanicized spellings ''pucara, pucará''<ref>{{cite web | title=pucará | website=«Diccionario de la lengua española» - Edición del Tricentenario | url=https://dle.rae.es/pucará | language=es | date=2022}}</ref>) is a defensive hilltop site or [[fortification]] built by the prehispanic and historic inhabitants of the central Andean area (from [[Ecuador]] to [[central Chile]] and [[Argentine Northwest|northwestern Argentina)]]. In some cases, these sites acted as temporary fortified refuges during periods of increased conflict, while other sites show evidence for permanent occupation.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Political landscapes of the late intermediate period in the southern Andes : the pukaras and their hinterlands|date=26 April 2018|publisher=Springer |editor=Álvarez Larrain, Alina|editor2=Greco, Catriel|isbn=978-3319767284|oclc=1022085192}}</ref> Emerging as a major site type during the Late Intermediate Period ({{Circa|1000}}-1430AD), the pukara form was adopted in some areas by the Inca military in contested borderlands of the [[Inca Empire]]. The Spanish also referred to the [[Mapuche]] earthen forts built during the [[Arauco War]] in the 16th and 17th centuries by this term.
Today, the term is commonly found in [[toponymy|toponyms]] of the [[Andes]] region, e.g. [[Andalicán]], [[Battle of Angol|Pucará de Angol]], [[Camiña]], [[Cañete, Chile|Cañete]]{{Verify source|date=May 2009}}<!-- "within two leagues of Cañete" -->, [[Nama (Chile)|Nama]], [[Quiapo, Chile|Quiapo]], [[Pucará de Tilcara|Tilcara]], [[Pucará de Turi|Turi]], [[Pucara del Cerro La Muralla]], [[Pukara of La Compañía]], Pukara de [[Lasana]], [[Pucará de Belén]], [[Pukará de Quitor]] and [[Puka Pukara]].
The Argentine [[FMA IA 58 Pucará|Pucará]] ground attack aircraft is named after the fortresses.
==Number and location of Inca pukaras==
[[File:Santa Cruz de Chile in 1615 by Guamán Poma.jpg|thumb|<small>"The native pukara and the Christian fortress of [[Santa Cruz de Coya|Santa Cruz de Chile]], the scene of battles between Spanish Christians and the native infidels of Chile", painting of 1615 by the [[Inca]] painter [[Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala|Guamán Poma]]. [[Royal Library, Denmark]].</small><ref>{{cite book|url=https://poma.kb.dk/permalink/2006/poma/1077/en/text/?open=idm656|title=Nueva corónica y buen gobierno|page=1077|year=1615|author=[[Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala|Guamán Poma]]|via=[[Royal Library, Denmark]] website}}</ref>]]
Inca pukaras were mostly located near the frontiers of the Inca Empire.  The greatest concentration is in northern Ecuador, indicating that the Incas encountered the sternest resistance to their expansion there, an assumption confirmed by the early Spanish chroniclers of Inca history. North of [[Quito]], the Incas met stiff opposition from several chiefdoms, collectively called the [[Inca-Caranqui|Pais Caranqui]]. The [[Pambamarca Fortress Complex]] was a group of pukaras built by the Incas to prosecute the war against the [[Cayambe, Ecuador|Cayambe]] people. Other pukaras grouped around the town of Caranqui facilitated the final defeat of the chiefdoms and their incorporation into the Inca Empire. These wars probably took place between 1490 and 1520. Peru has hundreds of towns, ruins, and locations with the name of Pucara;<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AqNPAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA311|title=Revista Peruana |date=1879 |publisher=Imprenta liberal, administrada por M. Fernandez |language=es |quote=En el Perú hay centenares de pueblos y lugares que se llaman pucará, es decir fortaleza, lo que prueba, por si solo, que originariamente hubo muchas tribus independientes que tenian que defenderse las unas de las otras}}</ref> however, it is not known how many of these sites were actually built or maintained during the Inca Empire or if were actual fortresses in first place, as it has been customary since the colony to designate as ''pucara'' whichever place seemingly appearing to have been a fortress, despite the fact that it may have never been used as such.
The table following is a rough count of the number and location of Inca pukaras which are known to archaeologists.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Country !! No. of Inca Pukaras<ref>{{cite web|last=Anderson |first=Amber M. |title=War and Conquest: Inca strategies and struggles in Northern Ecuador |url=https://www.academia.edu/11358577 |access-date=27 May 2017}}</ref>
|-
| Northern Ecuador || 106
|-
| Southern Ecuador || 27
|-
| Cuzco Region, Peru || 5
|-
| Peru || unknown
|-
| Southeastern Bolivia || 14
|-
| Northwest Argentina || 15
|-
| North and Central Chile || 17
|-
| Total || 184
|}
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Native american styles}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pukara}}
[[Category:Geography of South America]]
[[Category:Fortifications in Argentina]]
[[Category:Fortifications in Bolivia]]
[[Category:Pre-Columbian fortifications in Chile]]
[[Category:Fortifications in Peru]]
[[Category:Indigenous topics of the Andes]]
[[Category:Indigenous architecture of the Americas]]