View source for Retiarius

{{italics}}
{{short description|Roman gladiator who fought with equipment styled on that of a fisherman}}
{{see|List of Roman gladiator types}}
[[File:Nennig Roman Villa and Mosaics - 51134391753.jpg|thumb|right|A ''retiarius'' stabs at a ''[[secutor]]'' with his [[trident]] in this mosaic from the villa at [[Nennig]], c. 2nd–3rd century CE.]]
A '''''retiarius''''' (plural '''''retiarii'''''; literally, "net-man" in [[Latin]]) was a [[Roman gladiator]] who fought with equipment styled on that of a fisherman: a [[net casting|weighted net]] (''rete'' (3rd decl.), hence the name), a three-pointed [[trident]] (''fuscina'' or ''tridens''), and a [[dagger]] (''[[pugio]]''). The ''retiarius'' was lightly armoured, wearing an arm guard (''[[lorica manica|manica]]'') and a shoulder guard (''galerus''). Typically, his clothing consisted only of a loincloth (''subligaculum'') held in place by a wide belt, or of a short [[tunic]] with light padding. He wore no head protection or footwear.
The ''retiarius'' was routinely pitted against a heavily armed ''[[secutor]]''. The net-fighter made up for his lack of protective gear by using his speed and agility to avoid his opponent's attacks and waiting for the opportunity to strike. He first tried to throw his net over his rival. If this succeeded, he attacked with his trident while his adversary was entangled. Another tactic was to ensnare his enemy's weapon in the net and pull it out of his grasp, leaving the opponent defenceless. Should the net miss or the ''secutor'' grab hold of it, the ''retiarius'' likely discarded the weapon, although he might try to collect it back for a second cast. Usually, the ''retiarius'' had to rely on his trident and dagger to finish the fight. The trident, as tall as a human being, permitted the gladiator to jab quickly, keep his distance, and easily cause bleeding. It was not a strong weapon, usually inflicting non-fatal wounds so that the fight could be prolonged for the sake of entertainment. The dagger was the ''retiarius''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s final backup should the trident be lost. It was reserved for when close combat or a straight wrestling match had to settle the bout. In some battles, a single ''retiarius'' faced two ''secutores'' simultaneously. For these situations, the lightly armoured gladiator was placed on a raised platform and given a supply of stones with which to repel his pursuers.
''Retiarii'' first appeared in the arena during the 1st century [[Common Era|AD]] and had become standard attractions by the 2nd or 3rd century. The gladiator's lack of armour and his reliance on evasive tactics meant that many considered the ''retiarius'' the lowliest (and most effeminate) of the gladiators, an already [[Social stigma|stigmatised]] class. Passages from the works of [[Juvenal]], [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]], and [[Suetonius]] suggest that those ''retiarii'' who fought in tunics may have constituted an even more demeaned subtype (''retiarii tunicati'') who were not viewed as legitimate ''retiarii'' fighters but as arena clowns. Nevertheless, Roman artwork, graffiti, and grave markers include examples of specific ''retiarii'' who apparently had reputations as skilled combatants and lovers.<!-- possible cite: [[:it:Reziario]] cites "amanti" using Stephen Wisdom page 15, although that is not visible to me -->
==History and role==
[[File:Secutor-Retirarius.JPG|thumb|right|Relief showing a fight between a ''secutor'' and ''retiarius'']]
[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[gladiator]]s fell into stock ''[[list of Roman gladiator types|categories]]'' modelled on real-world precedents.<ref>Duncan 204.</ref> Almost all of these classes were based on military antecedents; the ''retiarius'' ("net-fighter" or "net-man"),<ref name="Baker 53">Baker 53.</ref><ref>Ward 39.</ref> who was themed after the sea, was one exception.<ref name="Junkelmann 59">Junkelmann 59.</ref> Rare gladiator fights were staged over water; these may have given rise to the concept of a gladiator based on a [[fisherman]]. Fights between differently-armed gladiators became popular in the [[Roman Empire|Imperial]] period;<ref name="Junkelmann 61">Junkelmann 61.</ref> the ''retiarius'' versus the scaly ''secutor'' developed as the conflict of a fisherman with a stylised fish. The earlier ''[[murmillo]]nes'' had borne a fish on their helmets;<ref>''Oxford Classical Dictionary'', "Gladiators"</ref> the ''secutores'' with their scaly armour evolved from them. However, because of the stark differences in arms and armour between the two types, the pairing pushed such practices to new extremes. Roman art and literature make no mention of ''retiarii'' until the early Imperial period; for example, the type is absent from the copious gladiator-themed reliefs dating to the 1st century found at [[Chieti]] and [[Pompeii]].<ref name="Junkelmann 61"/> Nevertheless, graffiti and artifacts from Pompeii attest to the class's existence by this time.<ref>Jacobelli 48.</ref> Fights between ''retiarii'' and ''secutores'' probably became popular as early as the middle of the 1st century CE; the net-fighter had become one of the standard gladiator categories by the 2nd or 3rd century CE and remained a staple attraction until the end of the gladiatorial games.<ref>Junkelmann 51, 59–60.</ref> In addition to the [[conflict (narrative)|man-versus-nature]] symbolism inherent in such bouts,<ref name="Duncan 206">Duncan 206.</ref> the lightly armoured ''retiarius'' was viewed as the effeminate counterpoint to the manly, heavily armoured ''secutor''.<ref name="Duncan 206"/> The ''retiarius'' was also seen as water to the ''secutor''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s fire, one constantly moving and escaping, the other determinedly inescapable.<ref>Auguet 78.</ref> Another gladiator type, the ''[[laquearius]]'' ("noose-man"), was similar to the ''retiarius'' but fought with a [[lasso]] in place of a net.<ref name="Grant 60">Grant 60.</ref>
The more skin left unarmoured and exposed, the lower a gladiator's status and the greater his perceived [[effeminacy]].<ref name="Braund 159">Braund 159.</ref> Likewise, the engulfing net may have been seen as a feminine symbol.<ref>Edwards 93, note 47.</ref> The light arms and armour of the ''retiarius'' thus established him as the lowliest, most disgraced, and most effeminate of the gladiator types.<ref name="Braund 159"/> Helmets allowed both gladiators and spectators to dehumanise the fighters; when an arena combatant had to kill a comrade-at-arms, someone he had probably lived and trained with every day, his opponent's helmet added an extra layer of separation. However, the ''retiarius'' was allowed no head protection; his face was visible to all.<ref>Junkelmann 68.</ref> The emperor [[Claudius]] had all net-fighters who lost in combat put to death so that spectators could enjoy their expressions of agony.<ref>Auguet 49.</ref> The ''retiarius''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s fighting style was another strike against him, as reliance on speed and evasion were viewed as undignified in comparison to the straightforward trading of blows.<ref>Baker 55–56.</ref> The ''retiarii'' lived in the worst barracks.<ref>Grant 60–61.</ref> Some members of the class trained to fight as [[Samnite (gladiator type)|Samnites]], another gladiator type, in order to improve their status.<ref name="Grant 61">Grant 61.</ref>
There is evidence that those net-men wearing tunics, known as ''retiarii tunicati'', formed a special sub-class, one even more demeaned than their loincloth-wearing colleagues.<ref name="C&R 589">Cerutti and Richardson 589.</ref> The Roman satirist [[Juvenal]] wrote that: <blockquote>So even the lanista's establishment is better ordered than yours, for he separates the vile from the decent, and sequesters even from their fellow-''retiarii'' the wearers of the ill-famed tunic; in the training-school, and even in gaol, such creatures herd apart….<ref>Juvenal, [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/juvenal/6.shtml ''Satires'' VI]: Oxford text 1ff. "purior ergo tuis laribus meliorque lanista, in cuius numero longe migrare iubetur psyllus ab ~eupholio.~ quid quod nec '''retia''' turpi iunguntur '''tunicae''', nec cella ponit eadem munimenta umeri ~pulsatamque arma~ tridentem qui '''nudus pugnare''' solet?" Emphasis added. Translation from Ramsay.</ref></blockquote>
The passage suggests that tunic-wearing ''retiarii'' were trained for a different role, "in servitude, under strict discipline and even possibly under some restraints."<ref>Cerutti and Richardson 590–591.</ref> Certain effeminate men mentioned by [[Seneca the Younger]] in his ''[[Quaestiones naturales]]'' were trained as gladiators and may correspond to Juvenal's tunic-wearing ''retiarii''.<ref>Seneca, ''Quaestiones naturales'' 7.31.3; quoted in Cerutti and Richardson 589–590.</ref> [[Suetonius]] reports this anecdote: "Once a band of five ''retiarii'' in tunics, matched against the same number of ''secutores'', yielded without a struggle; but when their death was ordered, one of them caught up his trident and slew all the victors." The reaction of Emperor [[Caligula]] showed the disgust with which he viewed the gladiators' actions: "Caligula bewailed this in a public proclamation as a most cruel murder, and expressed his horror of those who had had the heart to witness it."<ref name="C&R 589"/><ref name="Suetonius XXX">Suetonius XXX.</ref> The fate of the ''retiarii'' is not revealed.<ref name="Suetonius XXX"/> This was probably not a standard competition, as real gladiators did not surrender so easily.<ref>Cerutti and Richardson 594.</ref> Rather, such tunic-wearing net-men may have served as comic relief in the gladiatorial programming.<ref name="C&R 589"/>
<blockquote>To crown all this [scandal], what is left but the amphitheatre? And this disgrace of the city you have as well—Gracchus not fighting as equipped as a Mirmillo, with buckler or falchion (for he condemns—yes, condemns and hates such equipment). Nor does he conceal his face beneath a helmet. See! he wields a trident. When he has cast without effect the nets suspended from his poised right hand, he boldly lifts his uncovered face to the spectators, and, easily to be recognized, flees across the whole arena. We can not mistake the tunic, since the ribbon of gold reaches from his neck, and flutters in the breeze from his high-peaked cap. Therefore, the disgrace, which the Secutor had to submit to, in being forced to fight with Gracchus, was worse than any wound.<ref>Juvenal, Satire VIII, 90.</ref></blockquote>
[[File:Jean-Leon Gerome Pollice Verso.jpg|left|thumb|A ''[[murmillo]]'' stands victorious over a ''retiarius'' in [[Pollice Verso (Gérôme)|''Pollice Verso'']], a painting by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]] (1872).]]
==Arms and armour==
[[File:Retiarius vs secutor from the Zliten mosaic.jpg|right|thumb|In this scene from the [[Zliten mosaic]] (c. CE&nbsp;200), a ''retiarius'' armed only with a dagger raises a finger in surrender. His trident lies at the foot of his ''secutor'' adversary, and his net is missing. He is also seen bleeding from an artery in his leg]]
[[File:Pius Weloński - Gladiator 01.jpg|thumb|left|A retiarius depicted by Polish sculptor Pius Weloński at the [[National Museum, Kraków]]]]
The ''retiarius'' is the most readily identifiable gladiator type, due to his signature equipment: arm guard (''[[lorica manica|manica]]''), shoulder guard (''galerus''), [[net (device)|net]] (''rete''), [[trident]] (''fuscina'' or ''tridens''), and [[dagger]] (''[[pugio]]'').<ref name="Junkelmann 59"/> (Technically, the ''retiarius'' was not a "gladiator" at all, since he did not fight with the sword—''[[gladius]]''—after which such fighters took their name.<ref name="C&D 214"/>) His weapons and armour could be decorated. An embellished gladiatorial dagger is held at the [[Naples National Archaeological Museum]].<ref name="Wisdom 32">Wisdom 32.</ref> Archaeologists have excavated three engraved shoulder guards from the gladiator barracks at Pompeii: one is engraved with illustrations of an anchor, a crab, and a dolphin; another with [[cupid]]s and the head of [[Hercules]]; and a third with weapons and the inscription ''RET/SECUND'' ("''retiarius'', second rank").<ref>Jacobelli 13–14.</ref>
Although the net (''rete'') was this gladiator's signature weapon, few depictions of the device survive.<ref name="Junkelmann 59"/> Combat with throwing nets may have occurred on ancient battlefields,<ref name="Grant 60"/> but modern experiments and comparisons with modern fishing nets offer the only clues as to how the gladiatorial net was constructed. Such data indicate that the ''rete'' was circular, with a wide mesh about {{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=off}} in diameter and lead weights along the edges.<ref name="Junkelmann 59"/> A rope ran around the perimeter of the mesh, with the ends tied to the gladiator's wrist.<ref>Wisdom 31–32.</ref> Because it was thrown, the net was sometimes called a ''iaculum''.<ref name="Junkelmann 59"/>
The ''retiarius'' complemented his net with an iron or bronze trident (''fuscina'', ''fascina'' or, rarely, ''tridens'')<ref>Braund 159 calls it a ''fascina'', but most sources spell it ''fuscina''.</ref> that stood about as high as a human being.<ref name="Auguet 57">Auguet 57.</ref> A skull found in a gladiator graveyard in [[Ephesus]], Turkey, shows puncture holes consistent with a trident strike. The wounds are {{convert|5|cm|in|abbr=off}} apart and match a bronze trident excavated from Ephesus harbour in 1989. The trident's prongs are {{convert|21.6|cm|in|abbr=off}} long.<ref name="Follain 2">Follain 2.</ref>
A long, straight-bladed dagger (''pugio'') was the gladiator's final weapon.<ref name="Junkelmann 60">Junkelmann 60.</ref> A tombstone found in Romania shows a ''retiarius'' holding a dagger with four spikes (known as a ''quadrens''—each spike at the corner of a square [[Guard (weapon)|guard]]) instead of the usual bladed dagger. This was previously thought to be an artistic invention or perhaps a ceremonial weapon but a recently excavated [[femur]] bone from a gladiator graveyard in Ephesus has wounds consistent with the use of such a weapon.<ref name="Follain 2"/>
The ''retiarius'' wore minimal armour; unlike other gladiator types, he wore no helmet, greaves, or shield. He wore a ''[[Lorica manica|manica]]'' on his left arm, where other gladiators wore it on the right;<ref name="Junkelmann 59"/> this allowed him to more fluidly make a right-handed cast of his net.<ref>Jacobelli 13.</ref> Attached to the top of this was a long bronze or leather guard over the upper left arm and shoulder, known as a ''galerus''.<ref name="Junkelmann 59"/><ref name="Grant 60"/> This guard extended {{convert|12|to|13|cm|in|abbr=off}} beyond the shoulder blade and flared outward, allowing free movement of the gladiator's head. The device protected the upper arm, head and face when the ''retiarius'' kept his left side to his opponent.<ref name="Junkelmann 59"/> The armour was designed to let the net-man duck his head behind it, and it was curved so as to deflect a blow from the top downwards, not up towards the eyes.<ref name="Zoll 118">Zoll 118.</ref> Three examples of this protective gear found at Pompeii vary between {{convert|30|and|35|cm|in|abbr=off}} in length and about the same in width. They weigh about {{convert|1.1|to|1.2|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.
In the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] in later years, some ''retiarii'' wore a [[mail (armour)|chainmail]] ''manica'' instead of the ''galerus''. This mail covered the arm and upper chest.<ref name="Junkelmann 59"/> Equipment styles stayed relatively fixed in the [[Western Roman Empire|Western Empire]].<ref name="Grant 60"/>
Besides these items, the ''retiarius'' wore only a [[loincloth]] (''subligaculum'') held in place by a wide belt and gaiters or, as images show in lieu of the loincloth, a [[tunic]] that left the right shoulder uncovered.<ref name="Junkelmann 59"/> He wore fabric padding on his body to provide minimal additional protection.<ref name="Wisdom 32"/> Artistic depictions show that other options included legbands, anklebands,<ref name="Grant 60"/> a headband, and a medallion.<ref name="Wisdom 62">Wisdom 62.</ref> All told, the ''retiarius''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s equipment weighed 7 to {{nowrap|8 kilograms (15.4}} to 17.6&nbsp;lb), making him the lightest of the standard gladiator types.<ref name="Junkelmann 60"/> Like other arena combatants, the ''retiarius'' fought barefoot.<ref name="Follain 2"/>
==Fighting style==
[[File:Astyanax vs Kalendio mosaic.jpg|thumb|left|In the lower frame of this mosaic at the [[National Archaeological Museum of Spain|National Archaeological Museum in Madrid]], the ''retiarius'' Kalendio captures the ''secutor'' Astyanax in his net. Nevertheless, in the upper image, Kalendio lies wounded on the ground and raises his dagger to surrender.]]
The ''retiarius'' was traditionally pitted against a ''[[secutor]]'' or, possibly on rare occasions, a ''[[murmillo]]''.<ref name="Junkelmann 59"/><ref>Auguet 73 mentions the ''retiarius''/''murmillo'' pairing, but Zoll 117 says that the two gladiator types do not seem to have ever fought each other.</ref> Despite the disparity between the nearly nude net-fighter and his heavily armoured adversary, modern re-enactments and experiments show that the ''retiarius'' was by no means outmatched.<ref name="Junkelmann 59"/><ref name="Baker 186">Baker 186.</ref> His lack of heavy equipment meant that he could use speed and evasion to his advantage.<ref>Baker 55.</ref> He also fought with three offensive weapons to his opponent's one.<ref name="Auguet 72">Auguet 72.</ref> The net-fighter had to avoid close combat at all costs, keep his distance, and wait for an opening to stab with his trident or throw his net.<ref name="Junkelmann 61"/><ref name="Junkelmann 60"/> The name ''secutor'' means "pursuer" or "chaser", because this gladiator had to chase down the ''retiarius''. They were also known as ''contraretiarii'' ("those against the net-man").<ref name="Junkelmann 61"/><ref name="Grant 60"/> The ''secutor''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s strategy was to keep behind his shield (''[[scutum (shield)|scutum]]'') and force his opponent into close combat so that he could strike with his sword.<ref name="Junkelmann 61"/> In close quarters, the net-man had only his ''galerus'' shoulder guard for defence; its design forced him to keep his head ducked down behind it.<ref name="Zoll 118"/> The ''secutor''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s helmet greatly restricted his sight, hearing,<ref name="Junkelmann 61"/> and airflow. Coupled with the heavy weight of his arms and armour—the gear of a ''murmillo'', of which the ''secutor'' was a variant, weighed {{convert|15|to|18|kg|lb|abbr=on}}<ref name="Junkelmann 51">Junkelmann 51.</ref>—this gladiator was in greater danger of exhausting himself in a long fight.<ref>Junkelmann 61–63.</ref> One of the ''retiarius''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s tactics was to jab at the ''secutor''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s shield (the heaviest part of his equipment), forcing him to block and wear himself out.<ref name="Junkelmann 51"/><ref>Baker 189.</ref>
In skilled hands, the net was a useful weapon. The ''retiarius''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s primary objective with it was to capture his opponent.<ref name="Grant 60"/> A ewer found at [[Rheinzabern]] demonstrates the throwing technique: the ''retiarius'' held the net folded up in his right hand and cast it underhanded. He held his trident and dagger in his left hand, careful to keep the trident's prongs pointed downward to avoid snagging it in the mesh.<ref>Junkelmann 59–60.</ref> If the toss missed, the ''retiarius'' used the drawrope tied to his wrist to bring the net back in hand.<ref name="Grant 60"/><ref name="Wisdom 62"/> On a successful cast, the gladiator tightened the drawcord around the net's perimeter and tried to unbalance or topple his rival.<ref name="Auguet 57"/> A successful cast of the net could win the battle for the ''retiarius'' straightaway.<ref name="Auguet 72"/> This was not certain, however, as a mosaic at the [[National Archaeological Museum of Spain|National Archaeological Museum]] in Madrid shows: in the first panel, the ''retiarius'' Kalendio has caught his opponent, a ''secutor'' named Astyanax, in his net. In the later image, however, Kalendio lies on the ground, wounded, and raises his dagger to surrender. The inscription above Kalendio shows the sign for "null", implying that the match organisers ordered him killed.<ref>Futrell 98.</ref>
The net could ensnare the ''secutor''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s weapon to disarm him<ref name="Braund 159"/> and snag away his shield to put him at a significant disadvantage.<ref name="Auguet 72"/> Other ''retiarius'' tricks were to whip the net at his opponent's eyes to blind him and at his legs to trip him.<ref name="Baker 53"/><ref>Wisdom 31.</ref> The helmet of the ''secutor'' was smooth and round to avoid snagging the net.<ref name="Junkelmann 61"/> In most cases, the ''secutor'' knew to expect the net-man's tactics and tried to intercept and hold on to the weapon,<ref name="Junkelmann 60"/> possibly unsteadying his enemy by yanking on the net. In such danger, the ''retiarius'' could sever the drawstring from his wrist with his dagger.<ref name="Wisdom 32"/> The ''secutor'' stood by a lost net and left little chance to recover it.<ref name="Zoll 118"/><ref name="Baker 186"/> Speculation surrounds the frequency with which the ''retiarius'' used his net. Extant imagery rarely shows gladiators of the type with a net, yet the class is named for the device, and Juvenal uses the net to quickly identify a ''retiarius'' in his satires. The discrepancy may simply be a case of [[artistic licence]]; other types of gladiator are often shown without their weapons but can be assumed to be holding them due to their stance, and a net is a particularly difficult weapon to depict. The lack of nets in ''retiarius'' images may show gladiators who have already lost the weapon in the fight. Another possibility is that some ''retiarii'' simply did not use nets.<ref>Auguet 74.</ref>
[[File:Retiarius Scissor show fight 02.jpg|thumb|right|In this mock gladiatorial fight at [[Carnuntum]], Austria, the ''scissor'' (left) is wearing a conical arm guard used to snag away the net of the ''retiarius'' (right).]]
In most bouts, the ''retiarius'' probably had to resort to fighting with just his trident and dagger,<ref name="Junkelmann 60"/> placing him at a disadvantage.<ref name="Zoll 118"/> The trident was his primary weapon in such situations,<ref name="Junkelmann 60"/> and its length allowed the ''retiarius'' to keep his opponent at bay.<ref>Auguet 56.</ref> He held the weapon two-handed, left nearer the prongs, so that he could parry his enemy's strikes with its shaft and strike with both ends. Wielded two-handed, the weapon could land powerful blows.<ref name="Auguet 57"/><ref name="Junkelmann 60"/> Images show ''retiarii'' stabbing downward at the ''secutor''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s unshielded legs or stabbing down at the helmet in an attempt to poke through an eyehole. The trident itself was too weak to pierce the metal,<ref name="Junkelmann 60"/> although a skull found at Ephesus, Turkey, dating to CE&nbsp;200 to 300 shows that a trident strike to the head could be fatal on a bareheaded opponent.<ref>Follain 1.</ref> The ''secutor''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s helmet was rounded and free of protrusions to avoid snaring the net or being caught in the trident's prongs, but attacks on it forced the ''secutor'' to duck or hide behind his shield. This reduced his field of vision and gave the ''retiarius'' an advantage with his speed.<ref name="Junkelmann 60"/> Should the ''secutor'' strike with his sword, the ''retiarius'' parried with the trident prongs and attempted to disarm him.<ref name="Junkelmann 60"/> Likewise, the more heavily armoured gladiator tried to block the trident with his shield and force the net-man to lose it.<ref name="Auguet 57"/> Another type of gladiator, [[scissor (gladiator)|scissor]] could also be pitted against a ''retiarius''. Images from the Eastern Roman Empire show ''scissores'' wearing a tubular arm-guard in lieu of a shield. The guard fits over the left hand and ends in a hooked, knife-like blade that was probably intended to parry the net and trident or to snag and pull away the net. ''Scissores'' who succeeded in this probably dropped the hook weapon and fought with just a sword.<ref>Junkelmann 63.</ref><ref>Auguet 73–74.</ref>
The ''retiarius'' held the dagger in his left hand.<ref name="Junkelmann 60"/> The gladiator could use the dagger to cut his net free if it got snagged on his trident.<ref>Shadrake 178.</ref> He might fight with the trident in one hand and the dagger in the other, but this negated the advantage of distance afforded by the longer weapon when wielded by itself.<ref name="Auguet 58">Auguet 58.</ref> The dagger also served as a backup should the ''retiarius'' lose both net and trident.<ref name="Auguet 72"/> He attacked with the dagger when he had the element of surprise and could attempt to wrestle the ''secutor'' to the ground.<ref name="Junkelmann 60"/> Fights could devolve into straight wrestling matches in such situations, perhaps with daggers.<ref name="Auguet 58"/> Should the ''retiarius'' win and be ordered to kill his rival, he used his knife to stab him or cut his throat.<ref name="Wisdom 32"/> Evidence shows that ''retiarii'' could be quite successful combatants; a tombstone from Gaul reads, "[For] the ''retiarius'', L. Pompeius, winner of nine crowns, born in Vienna, twenty-five years of age. His wife put this up with her own money for her wonderful spouse."<ref>Quoted in Futrell 152.</ref> Nevertheless, the gladiators themselves were prone to boast: A graffito at Pompeii shows the ''retiarius'' Antigonus, who claims a ridiculous 2,112&nbsp;victories, facing a challenger called Superbus, who has won but a single fight.<ref>Auguet 44.</ref>
In some contests, a ''retiarius'' faced two ''secutores'' at the same time. He stood on a bridge or raised platform with stairs and had a pile of fist-sized stones to lob at his adversaries and keep them at bay. The ''secutores'' tried to scale the structure and get at him. The platform (called a ''pons'', "bridge") may have been constructed over water.<ref>Junkelmann 60–61.</ref> Such scenarios were one of the rare situations where gladiators were not paired one on one.<ref>Junkelmann 66.</ref>
== See also ==
* [[List of Roman gladiator types]]
==Notes==
{{Reflist|20em}}
==References==
{{refbegin}}
* Auguet, Roland [1970] (1994). ''Cruelty and Civilization: The Roman Games''. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-10452-1}}.
* Baker, Alan (2002). ''The Gladiator: The Secret History of Rome's Warrior Slaves''. Da Capo Press. {{ISBN|0-306-81185-5}}.
* Braund, Susanna Morton, ed. (1996). ''[[Satires of Juvenal|Satires]]: Book I''. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-35667-9}}.
* Cerutti, Steven M., and L. Richardson, Jr. (Winter 1989). "The ''Retiarius Tunicatus'' of Suetonius, Juvenal, and Petronius", ''The American Journal of Philology'', Vol. 110, No. 4.
* Connolly, Peter, and Hazel Dodge (1997). ''The Ancient Life: Life in Classical Athens and Rome''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-521582-6}}.
* Duncan, Anne (2006). ''Performance and Identity in the Ancient World''. New York: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-85282-X}}.
* Edwards, Catherine (1997). "Unspeakable Professions: Public Performance and Prostitution in Ancient Rome", ''Roman Sexualities''. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-01178-8}}.
* Follain, John (15 December 2002). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20110429085905/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article1069977.ece The dying game: How did the gladiators really live?]", ''Times Online''. Accessed 31 January 2008.
* Futrell, Alison (2006). ''The Roman Games''. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. {{ISBN|1-4051-1568-8}}.
* [[Michael Grant (author)|Grant, Michael]] [1967] (1995). ''Gladiators''. Barnes & Noble Books. {{ISBN|1-56619-958-1}}.
* Jacobelli, Luciana (2003). ''Gladiators at Pompeii''. Rome: "L'Erma" di Bretschneider. {{ISBN|88-8265-249-1}}.
* Junkelmann, Marcus (2000). "''Familia Gladiatoris:'' The Heroes of the Amphitheatre", ''Gladiators and Caesars: The Power of Spectacle in Ancient Rome''. University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-22798-0}}.
* [[Juvenal]]; G. G. Ramsay, trans. (1918). ''Juvenal and Perseus: Satires''. Loeb Classical Library. Online versions of [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/juv-sat2eng.html Satire II] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100819042804/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/juv-sat2eng.html |date=2010-08-19 }} and [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/juvenal-satvi.html Satire VI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511081242/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/juvenal-satvi.html |date=2008-05-11 }} accessed 1 February 2008.
* Juvenal; Lewis Evans, trans. (1861). "Satire VIII", ''The Satires of Juvenal, Persius, Sulpicia, and Lucilius''. New York City: Harper & Brothers, Publishers.
* Shadrake, Susanna (2005). ''The World of the Gladiator''. Tempus. {{ISBN|0-7524-3442-X}}.
* [[Suetonius]]; J. C. Rolfe, trans. (1920). ''De Vita Caesarum: Caius Caligula (The Lives of the Caesars: Caius Caligula''), Vol. I. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. [http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/ancient/suetonius-caligula.html Online version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118194459/http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/ancient/suetonius-caligula.html |date=2014-11-18 }} accessed 1 February 2008
* Valsecchi, Maria Cristina (7 May 2007). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070509021558/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/05/070507-gladiator-picture.html Ancient Gladiator Mosaic Found in Roman Villa]", ''National Geographic News''. Accessed 31 January 2008.
* [[Thomas Ernst Josef Wiedemann|Wiedemann, Thomas]] [1992] (1995). ''Emperors and Gladiators''. Abingdon, Oxen: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-12164-7}}.
* Ward, Allen M. (2004). "''Gladiator'' in Historical Perspective", ''Gladiator: Film and History''. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. {{ISBN|1-4051-1042-2}}.
* Wisdom, Stephen (2001). ''Gladiators: 100 BC–AD 200''. Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd. {{ISBN|1-84176-299-7}}.
* Zoll, Amy (2002). ''Gladiatrix: The True Story of History's Unknown Woman Warrior''. London: Berkley Boulevard Books. {{ISBN|0-425-18610-5}}.
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{Commons category|Retiarii}}
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Gladiator types]]
[[Category:Tridents]]