View source for Rhine

{{short description|Major river in Western Europe}}
{{about|the river|other uses|Rhine (disambiguation)|and|Rhein (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2021}}
<!-- {{Infobox_River
| river_name = Rhine.
| image_name = Rhein-Karte.png
| caption = The Rhine is one of Europe's largest and most important.
| origin = [[Graubünden]], Switzerland
| mouth = [[North Sea]] <br /> {{coord|51|58|52|N|4|5|35|E|name=North Sea-Rhine|display=inline,title}}
| basin_countries = [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]], [[Italy]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[France]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Belgium]], [[Netherlands]]
| length = {{convert|1230|km|abbr=on}}{{notetag|name=length}}
| elevation =  Rein Anteriur/Vorderrhein: approx. 2,602 m (8,500 ft) <br /> Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein: approx. 2,500 m (8,200 ft)
| discharge = [[Basel]]: {{convert|1060|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} <br />[[Strasbourg]]: {{convert|1080|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} <br />[[Cologne]]: {{convert|2090|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} <br />Dutch border: {{convert|2260|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
| watershed = {{convert|185000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
}}  -->
{{Infobox river
| name               = Rhine
| native_name        = {{native name list |tag1=de|name1=Rhein |tag2=fr|name2=Rhin|postfix2=<ref name=French>{{cite web |url=http://tab.geoportail.fr/?c=7.503120422363362,47.67887135071144&z=12&l0=ORTHOIMAGERY.ORTHOPHOTOS:WMTS(1)&l1=GEOGRAPHICALGRIDSYSTEMS.MAPS.SCAN-EXPRESS.STANDARD:WMTS(1)&permalink=yes |title=Le Rhin |publisher=L'Institut National de l'Information Geographique et Forestrière IGN |location=Paris, France |type=official site |language=fr |access-date=6 March 2016}}</ref> |tag3=nl|name3=Rijn
|tag4=yi|name4={{Script/Hebrew|ריין}}
|tag5=li|name5=Rien |tag6=mis|name6=Ragn|paren6=omit|postfix6=&nbsp;&nbsp;([[Sutsilvan]]) |tag7=rm-vallader|name7=Rain |tag8=gsw|name8=Rhi(n)
|tag9=mis|name9=Rhing|paren9=omit|postfix9=&nbsp;&nbsp;([[Low Franconian languages]])}}
| name_other         =
| name_etymology     = Celtic ''Rēnos''
<!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP -->
| image              = Middle Bridge, Basel, Switzerland.JPG
| image_size         = 300
| image_caption      = The Rhine in [[Basel]], Switzerland
| map                = Flusssystemkarte Rhein 04.jpg
| map_size           = 240
| map_caption        = Map of the Rhine basin
| pushpin_map        =
| pushpin_map_size   = 240
| pushpin_map_caption=
<!---------------------- LOCATION -->
| subdivision_type1  = Countries
| subdivision_name1  = {{hlist|[[Switzerland]]|[[Liechtenstein]]|[[Austria]]|[[Germany]]|[[France]]|[[Netherlands]]}}
| subdivision_type2  = Rhine Basin
| subdivision_name2  = {{hlist|[[Switzerland]]|[[Liechtenstein]]|[[Vorarlberg]]|Southern and Western Germany|[[Alsace]], France|[[Luxembourg]]|[[Belgium]]|[[Netherlands]]|[[Val di Lei]], Italy}}
| subdivision_type3  = Region
| subdivision_name3  = Central and Western Europe
| subdivision_type4  = Largest cities
| subdivision_name4  = {{hlist|[[Cologne]]|[[Rotterdam]]|[[Düsseldorf]]|[[Duisburg]]|[[Strasbourg]]|[[Arnhem]]|[[Basel]]}}
| subdivision_type5  =
| subdivision_name5  =
<!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -->
| length_km          = 1230
| length_ref = {{notetag|name=length}}
| width_min          =
| width_avg          =
| width_max          =
| depth_min          =
| depth_avg          =
| depth_max          =
| discharge1_location=
| discharge1_min     = {{convert|800|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
| discharge1_avg     = {{convert|2900|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
| discharge1_max     = {{convert|13000|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
<!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES -->
| source1            = [[Vorderrhein]] ([[Sursilvan]]: ''Rein Anteriur'')
| source1_location   = [[Tomasee]] ({{langx|rm|Lai da Tuma}}), [[Surselva Region|Surselva]], Graubünden, Switzerland
| source1_coordinates= {{coord|46|37|57|N|8|40|20|E|display=inline}}
| source1_elevation  = {{convert|2345|m|abbr=on}}
| source2            = [[Hinterrhein (river)|Hinterrhein]] (Sursilvan: ''Rein Posteriur'')
| source2_location   = [[Paradies Glacier]], Graubünden, Switzerland
| source2_coordinates=
| source2_elevation  =
| source_confluence            = [[Reichenau, Switzerland|Reichenau]]
| source_confluence_location   = [[Tamins]], Graubünden, Switzerland
| source_confluence_coordinates= {{coord|46|49|24|N|9|24|27|E|display=inline}}
| source_confluence_elevation  = {{convert|585|m|abbr=on}}
| mouth              = [[North Sea]]
| mouth_location     = [[Netherlands]]
| mouth_coordinates  = {{coord|51|58|54|N|4|4|50|E|display=inline,title}}
| mouth_elevation    = {{convert|0|m|abbr=on}}
| progression        =
| river_system       =
| basin_size_km2     = 185000
| tributaries_left   =
| tributaries_right  =
| custom_label       =
| custom_data        =
| extra              = {{sfn|Frijters|Leentvaar|2003}}
| mapframe = yes
| mapframe-zoom = 5
| mapframe-height = 250
| mapframe-stroke-width=1.5
}}
The '''Rhine'''{{notetag|{{langx|de|Rhein}} {{IPA|de|ʁaɪn||de-Rhein.ogg}}; {{langx|fr|Rhin}}<ref name=French/> {{IPA|fr|ʁɛ̃||LL-Q150 (fra)-Eihel-Rhin.wav}}; {{langx|nl|Rijn}} {{IPA|nl|rɛin||nl-Rijn.ogg}}; {{langx|wa|Rén}} {{IPA-wa|ʀẽ||Wa rén.ogg}}; {{langx|li|Rien}}; {{langx|rm|label=[[Sursilvan]]|Rein}}, {{lang|yi|{{Script/Hebrew|ריין|rtl=yes}}}}, {{langx|rm|label=[[Sutsilvan]] and [[Surmiran]]|Ragn}}, {{langx|rm|label=[[Rumantsch Grischun]], [[Vallader]] and [[Puter]]|Rain}}; {{langx|it|Reno}} {{IPA|it|ˈrɛːno|}}; {{langx|gsw|Rhi(n)}}, including in [[Alsatian dialect|Alsatian]] and [[Low Alemannic German]]; {{langx|ksh|label=[[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]] and [[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]]|Rhing}}; {{langx|la|Rhenus}} {{IPA|la|ˈr̥eːnʊs|}}.}} ({{IPAc-en|r|aɪ|n}} {{respell|RYNE}})<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/rhine |title=Rhine |dictionary=Collins Dictionary |edition=Online |access-date=1 June 2023}}</ref> is one of the major [[List of rivers of Europe|European rivers]]. The river begins in the Swiss [[canton of Graubünden]] in the southeastern [[Swiss Alps]]. It forms the Swiss-Liechtenstein border and partly the [[Austria–Switzerland border|Swiss-Austrian]] and [[Germany-Switzerland border|Swiss-German]] borders. After that the Rhine defines much of the [[Franco-German border]], after which it flows in a mostly northerly direction through the German [[Rhineland]]. Finally in Germany, the Rhine turns into a predominantly westerly direction and flows into the [[Netherlands]] where it eventually empties into the [[North Sea]]. It drains an area of 9,973&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>.
Its name derives from the Celtic ''Rēnos''. There are two [[States of Germany|German states]] named after the river, [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] and [[Rhineland-Palatinate]], in addition to several [[districts of Germany|districts]] (e.g. [[Rhein-Sieg-Kreis|Rhein-Sieg]]). The [[departments of France|departments]] of [[Bas-Rhin]] and [[Haut-Rhin]] in Alsace (France) are also named after the river. Some adjacent towns are named after it, such as [[Rheinau, Switzerland|Rheinau]], [[Rheineck]], [[Rheinfelden (Aargau)|Rheinfelden]] (CH) and [[Rheinfelden (Baden)|Rheinfelden]] (D).
The International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine Basin (CHR) and EUWID contend that the river could experience a massive decrease in volume, or even dry up completely in case of drought, within the next 30 to 80 years, as a result of the [[climate crisis]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stahl |first1=K. |last2=Weiler |first2=M. |last3=Van Tiel |first3=M. |last4=Kohn |first4=I. |last5=Hänsler |first5=A. |last6=Freudiger |first6=D. |last7=Seibert |first7=J. |last8=Gerlinger |first8=K. |last9=Moretti |first9=G. |title=CHR Report No. I-28: Impact of climate change on the rain, snow and glacier melt components of streamflow of the river Rhine and its tributaries |date=2022 |publisher=International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine Basin |location=Lelystad |isbn=978-90-70980-44-3 |page=26 |url=https://www.chr-khr.org/sites/default/files/ASG-II_Synthese_EN_mit-Links.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Gerber |first=A. |title=Klimaforscher Latif: Rhein könnte bei Dürre austrocknen |trans-title=Climate researcher Latif: The Rhine could dry out in the event of a drought |url=https://www.euwid-wasser.de/news/wirtschaft/klimaforscher-latif-rhein-koennte-bei-duerre-austrocknen-120722/ |url-access=subscription |access-date=9 January 2023 |date=6 July 2022 |work=EUWID Wasser und Abwasser |publisher=EUWID Europäischer Wirtschaftsdienst |place=Gernsbach |language=de}}</ref>
The Rhine is the [[List of rivers of Europe|second-longest river]] in Central and Western Europe (after the [[Danube]]), at about {{convert|1230|km|abbr=on}},{{notetag|name=length|The Rhine only has an official length scale ({{lang|de|Rheinkilometer}}) downstream of [[Konstanz]]. Its full length is subject to the definition of the Alpine Rhine. In 2010, there were media reports to the effect that the length of the Rhine had been consistently over-stated in 20th-century encyclopedias, and upon request by journalists, the Dutch [[Rijkswaterstaat]] gave a length of {{Convert|1232|km|mi|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/wissen/der-rhein-ist-kuerzer-als-gedacht-jahrhundert-irrtum-1.24664-0 |title=Der Rhein ist kürzer als gedacht – Jahrhundert-Irrtum |trans-title=The Rhine is Shorter Than Expected – The Mistake of the Century |work=Süddeutsche Zeitung |place=München |date=28 March 2010 |last1=Schrader |first1=C. |last2=Uhlmann |first2=B. |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thelocal.de/20100327/26161 |title=Rhine River 90&nbsp;km shorter than everyone thinks |date=27 March 2010 |work=The Local |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819165418/https://www.thelocal.de/20100327/26161/ |archive-date=19 August 2022 |url-status=live|quote ="We checked it out and came to 1,232 kilometers," said Ankie Pannekoek, spokeswoman for the Dutch government hydrology office.}}</ref>}} with an average discharge of about {{convert|2900|m3/s |abbr= on}}.
The Rhine and the Danube comprised much of the [[Roman Empire]]'s [[Limes Germanicus|northern inland boundary]], and the Rhine has been a vital navigable waterway bringing trade and goods deep inland since those days. The various castles and defenses built along it attest to its prominence as a waterway in the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Among the largest and most important cities on the Rhine are [[Cologne]], [[Rotterdam]], [[Düsseldorf]], [[Duisburg]], [[Strasbourg]], [[Arnhem]], and [[Basel]].
==Name==
The variants of the name of the Rhine (Latin Rhenus; French Rhin, Italian Reno, Romansh Rain or Rein, Dutch Rijn, Alemannic Ry, Ripuarian Rhing)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chr-khr.org/en/news/length-rhine-update-2015|title=Length of the Rhine (Update 2015) {{pipe}} International Commission for the Hydrology of the Rhine basin (CHR)|website=www.chr-khr.org}}</ref> in modern languages are all derived from the [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] name ''{{lang|xtg|Rēnos}}'', which was adapted in [[Greco-Roman geography|Roman-era geography]] (1st century BC) as Latin ''{{lang|la|Rhenus}}'',{{notetag|The Rhine was not known in the Hellenistic period. It is mentioned by [[Cicero]], ''In Pisonem'' 33.81. [[Strabo]] (1.4.3) mentions the countries "at the mouth of the Rhine" {{lang|grc|αἱ τοῦ Ῥήνου ἐκβολαί}}; "states that the countries "beyond the Rhine and as far as [[Scythia]]" {{lang|grc|καὶ τὰ πέραν τοῦ Ῥήνου τὰ μέχρι Σκυθῶ}} should be considered unknown, as [[Pytheas]]' account of remote nations cannot be trusted.}} and as Greek {{lang|grc|Ῥῆνος}} (''{{transliteration|grc|Rhēnos}}'').
The spelling with ''Rh-'' in English ''Rhine'' as well as in German ''{{lang|de|Rhein}}'' and French ''{{lang|fr|Rhin}}'' is due to the influence of Greek orthography, while the vocalization ''-i-'' is due to the [[Proto-Germanic]] adoption of the Gaulish name as *''[[:wikt:Appendix:Proto-Germanic/Rīnaz|Rīnaz]]'', via [[Old Frankish]] giving [[Old English]] ''{{lang|ang|Rín}}'',<ref>Bosworth and Toller, ''An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary'' (1898), [http://lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/html/oe_bosworthtoller/b0799.html p. 799]. ''{{lang|ang|Sió eá ðe man hǽt Rín}}'' ''[[Orosius]]'' (ed. J. Bosworth 1859) 1.1</ref> [[Old High German]] ''{{lang|goh|Rīn}}'', early [[Middle Dutch]] ({{Circa|1200}}) ''{{lang|dum|Rijn}}'' (then also spelled ''{{lang|dum|Ryn}}'' or ''{{lang|dum|Rin}}'').<ref>[http://gtb.inl.nl/iWDB/search?actie=article&wdb=VMNW&id=ID30242&lemmodern=Rijn Rijn], ''Vroegmiddelnederlands Woordenboek''</ref>
The modern German diphthong ''{{lang|de|Rhein}}'' (also used in [[Romansh language|Romansh]]) ''{{lang|rm|Rein, Rain}}'' is a [[Central German]] development of the [[Early New High German|early modern period]], with the [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] name ''{{lang|gsw|R(n)}}'' keeping the older vocalism. In Alemannic, the deletion of the ending ''-n'' in pausa is a recent development; the form ''{{lang|gsw|Rn}}'' is largely preserved in [[Canton of Lucerne|Lucernese]] dialects.<ref>[http://digital.idiotikon.ch/idtkn/id6.htm#page/60993/mode/1up] ''[[Schweizerisches Idiotikon]]'' s.v. ''Rī(n)'' (6,994).</ref> ''{{lang|ksh|Rhing}}'' in [[Ripuarian language|Ripuarian]] is diphthongized, as is ''{{lang|pfl|Rhei, Rhoi}}'' in [[Palatine dialect|Palatine]]. While Spanish has adopted the Germanic vocalism ''{{lang|roa|Rin-}}'', Italian, Occitan, and Portuguese have retained the Latin ''{{lang|roa|Ren-}}''.
The Gaulish name ''Rēnos'' ([[Proto-Celtic]] or [[pre-Celtic]]{{notetag|
Krahe (1964) claims the hydronym as "[[Old European hydronymy|Old European]]", i.e. belonging to the oldest Indo-European layer of names predating the 6th century BC ([[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt D]]) Celtic expansion.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Krahe |first1=H. |title=Unsere ältesten Flussnamen |trans-title=Our Oldest River Names |date=1964 |publisher=O. Harrassowitz |location=Wiesbaden |language=de |oclc=10374594 |hdl=2027/mdp.39015055266442}}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2023}}}} ''*Reinos'') belongs to a class of river names built from the [[PIE root]] ''{{PIE|*rei-}}'' "to move, flow, run", also found in other names such as the [[Reno (river)|Reno]] in Italy.{{notetag|name=etym|In Albanian/Illyrian ''rrhedh'' also means to "move, flow, run". [[Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch|Pokorny's]] (1959) "3. ''{{PIE|er- : or- : r-}}'' 'to move, set in motion'" (pp. 326–32), [[Laryngeal theory|laryngealist]] ''{{PIE|*h<sub>1</sub>reiH-}}'', with an ''-n-'' suffix; Celtic reflexes: [[Old Irish]] ''renn'' "rapid", ''[[Rian|rīan]]'' "sea", Middle Irish ''rian'' "river, way".
The root gives the Germanic verb ''rinnan'' (' ← ''*ri-nw-an'') whence English ''[[:wikt:run|run]]'' (from a causative ''*rannjanan'', Old English ''eornan''); Gothic ''rinnan'' "run, flow", Old English ''rinnan'', Old Norse ''rinna'' "to run",, ''rinno'' "brook"; c.f. Sanskrit ''rinati'' "causes to flow"; Root cognates without the ''-n-'' suffix include Middle Low German ''ride'' "brook", Old English ''riþ'' "stream", Dutch ''ril'' "running stream", Latin ''rivus'' "stream", Old Church Slavonic ''reka'' "river".; see also {{cite web |url= http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Rhine |title=Rhine |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=10 February 2009 |publisher=Douglas Harper |date=November 2001}}}}
The grammatical gender of the [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] name (as well as of its Greek and Latin adaptation) is masculine, and the name remains masculine in German, Dutch, French, Spanish and Italian. The Old English river name was variously inflected as masculine or feminine; and its [[Old Norse#Old Icelandic|Old Icelandic]] adoption was inflected as feminine.<ref>Bosworth and Toller, ''An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary'' (1898), [http://lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/html/oe_bosworthtoller/b0799.html p. 799]:
''Rín''; m.; f. The Rhine [...] O. H. Ger. ''Rín''; m.: Icel. ''Rín''; f.</ref>
==Geography==
[[File:Rhein-Karte2.png|thumb|right|270px|upright=1.2|<u>'''Sections of the Rhine:'''</u> {{legend|#ff7474|[[Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta]]}} {{legend|#ff8c35|[[Lower Rhine]]}} {{legend|#ffff27|[[Middle Rhine]]}} {{legend|#82b143|[[Upper Rhine]]}} {{legend|#4abbb7|[[High Rhine]]}} {{legend|#2d7cea|[[Lake Constance]] (''[[Untersee (Lake Constance)|Untersee]]'', ''[[Seerhein]]'', ''[[Obersee (Lake Constance)|Obersee]]'')}} {{legend|#ba7eff|[[Alpine Rhine]], ''[[Vorderrhein]]'', ''[[Hinterrhein (river)|Hinterrhein]]''}} {{legend|#ffffff|[[Sources of the Rhine|Rhine sources]]}} For an interactive map, click here: {{maplink|from=Rhine.map}}.]]
The length of the Rhine is conventionally measured in "Rhine-kilometers" (''Rheinkilometer''), a scale introduced in 1939 which runs from the 0&nbsp;km datum at [[Old Rhine Bridge (Constance)|Old Rhine Bridge]] in the city of [[Konstanz]], at the western end of [[Lake Constance]], to the [[Hook of Holland]] at 1,036.20&nbsp;km.
The river is significantly shortened from its natural course due to a number of canal projects completed in the 19th and 20th century.{{notetag|most notably the straightening of the Upper Rhine planned by [[Johann Gottfried Tulla]], completed during 1817–1876.}} The "total length of the Rhine", to the inclusion of Lake Constance and the [[Alpine Rhine]] is more difficult to measure objectively; it was cited as {{convert|1232|km|mi|abbr=off|sp=us}} by the Dutch Rijkswaterstaat in 2010.{{notetag|name=length}}
Its course is conventionally divided as follows:
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Length || Section || Avg. discharge || Elevation || Left tributaries{{efn-lr|name="partial"|Partial list.}} || Right tributaries{{efn-lr|name="partial"}}
|-
| 76&nbsp;km{{efn-lr|Length of the [[Anterior Rhine]], including the [[Rein da Medel]]; {{cvt|76|km|disp=out}}.}} || The various [[sources of the Rhine|sources]] and headwaters forming the '''[[Anterior Rhine|Anterior]]''' and '''[[Posterior Rhine]]''' within [[Grisons]], Switzerland || 116&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s{{efn-lr|Average runoff for the Rhine catchment for the years 1961–1990 as measured at [[Chur]].{{sfn|Schädler|Weingartner|2002|loc=Table 1, row 10-4}}}} || 584&nbsp;m || [[Aua Russein]], [[Schmuèr]]<ref name=STVR>{{cite map |publisher=Federal Office for the Environment FOEN |url=https://s.geo.admin.ch/69348abdd3 |title=Vorderrhein |map-url=http://www.gewiss.ch |map=Maps of Switzerland – Swiss Confederation – GEWISS |type=online map |language=de |date=2014 |place=Berne, Switzerland |cartography=Swiss Federal Office of Topography swisstopo |via=map.geo.admin.ch |scale=Gewässernetz 1:2 Mio |series=National Map 1:200 000 |access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref> || [[Rein da Tuma]], [[Rein da Curnera]], [[Rein da Medel]], [[Rein da Sumvitg]] ([[Rein da Vigliuts]]), [[Glogn]] ([[Valser Rhine]]), [[Rabiusa]], [[Hinterrhein (river)|Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein]] (tributaries of which include the [[Ragn da Ferrera]], [[Albula (river)|Albula/Alvra]], [[Gelgia (river)|Gelgia]], and [[Landwasser]])<ref name=STVR/>
|-
| {{abbr|c.|Circa}}&nbsp;90&nbsp;km{{efn-lr|{{cvt|90|km|disp=out}}.}} || The '''[[Alpine Rhine]]''' running through the Grisonian and St. Gall Rhine Valley (partly forming the Swiss border with [[Liechtenstein]] and [[Austrian-Swiss border|Austria]]) || 245&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s{{efn-lr|Average runoff for the Rhine catchment for the years 1961–1990 as measured at the Swiss border immediately upstream of Lake Constance.{{sfn|Schädler|Weingartner|2002|loc=Table 1, row 10-6}}}} || 400&nbsp;m || [[Tamina (river)|Tamina]], [[Saar (Rhine)|Saar]]<ref name=STAR>{{cite map |publisher=Federal Office for the Environment FOEN |url=https://s.geo.admin.ch/6934a65dad |title=Alpenrhein |map-url=http://www.gewiss.ch |map=Maps of Switzerland – Swiss Confederation – GEWISS |type=online map |language=de |date=2014 |place=Berne, Switzerland |cartography=Swiss Federal Office of Topography swisstopo |via=map.geo.admin.ch |scale=Gewässernetz 1:2 Mio |series=National Map 1:2 Mio |access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref> || [[Plessur (river)|Plessur]], [[Landquart (river)|Landquart]],<ref name=STAR/> [[Liechtenstein inland canal]], [[Ill (Austria)|Ill]], [[Frutz]]
|-
| c.&nbsp;60&nbsp;km{{efn-lr|{{cvt|60|km|disp=out}}.}} || '''[[Lake Constance]]''', including the short channel called [[Seerhein]] at [[Konstanz]], connecting [[Obersee (Lake Constance)|Obersee]] and [[Untersee (Lake Constance)|Untersee]] || 364&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s{{efn-lr|Average runoff for the Rhine and Lake Constance catchment for the years 1961–1990 as measured at [[Rheinklingen]].{{sfn|Schädler|Weingartner|2002|loc=Table 1, row 10-7}}}} || 395&nbsp;m || [[Alter Rhein]] (''Rheintaler Binnenkanal''), [[Goldach (river)|Goldach]], [[Aach (Arbon)|Aach]]<ref name=STLC>{{cite map |publisher=Federal Office for the Environment FOEN |url=https://s.geo.admin.ch/693cf9db17 |title=Lake Constance |map-url=http://www.gewiss.ch |map=Maps of Switzerland – Swiss Confederation – GEWISS |type=online map |language=de |date=2014 |place=Berne, Switzerland |cartography=Swiss Federal Office of Topography swisstopo |via=map.geo.admin.ch |scale=Gewässernetz 1:200 000, Flussordnung |series=National Map 1:2 Mio |access-date=5 January 2016}}</ref> || [[Dornbirner Ach]], [[Bregenzer Ach]], [[Leiblach]], [[Argen]], [[Schussen]], [[Rotach]], [[Brunnisach]], [[Lipbach]], [[Seefelder Aach]], [[Stockacher Aach]], [[Radolfzeller Aach]]{{efn-lr|Most of the water of the Radolfzeller Aach comes from the [[Danube Sinkhole]], making the [[Danube]] indirectly a tributary of the Rhine.}}<ref name=STLC/>
|-
| c.&nbsp;150&nbsp;km{{efn-lr|Konstanz to Basel, ''Rheinkilometer'' 0–167; {{cvt|150|km|disp=out}}.}} || The '''[[High Rhine]]''' from the exit of Lake Constance to [[Basel]], forming a substantial part of the [[German-Swiss border]] || 1,089&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s{{efn-lr|Average discharge for the years 1961–1990 as measured at Basel.{{sfn|Schädler|Weingartner|2002|loc=Table 1, row 10-12 "Rhein–Landesgrenze (Gesamtgebiet)"}} Discharges of 2,500&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s are regularly achieved during annual peaks, and discharges of over 4,000&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s have been recorded during exceptional flooding events.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Scherrer |first1=S. |last2=Petrascheck |first2=A. |last3=Hode |first3=H. |title=Extreme Hochwasser des Rheins bei Basel – Herleitung von Szenarien |journal=Wasser Energie Luft |date=2006 |volume=98 |issue=1 |page=43 |url=http://www.scherrer-hydrol.ch/pdf/scherrer/scherrer_etal_wel_2006_extreme_hochwasser_HQ.pdf |trans-title=Extreme Flooding of the Rhine near Basel - Derivation of Scenarios |publisher=Schweizerischer Wasserwirtschaftsverband |location=Baden |language=de |issn=0377-905X}}</ref>}}
| 246&nbsp;m|| [[Thur (Switzerland)|Thur]], [[Töss (river)|Töss]], [[Glatt (river)|Glatt]], [[Aare (river)|Aare]],{{efn-lr|At the confluence of the Aare and the Rhine, the Aare at 564&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s{{sfn|Schädler|Weingartner|2002|loc=Table 1, row 20-10}} carries more water on average than the Rhine at 442&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s,{{sfn|Schädler|Weingartner|2002|loc=Table 1, row 10-10}} so that hydrographically speaking the Rhine is a right tributary of the Aare.}} [[Sissle]]. [[Möhlinbach]], [[Ergolz]], [[Birs]]<ref name=STHR>{{cite map |publisher=Federal Office for the Environment FOEN |url=https://s.geo.admin.ch/693cf9db17 |title=High Rhine |map-url=http://www.gewiss.ch |map=Maps of Switzerland – Swiss Confederation – GEWISS |type=online map |language=de |date=2014 |place=Berne, Switzerland |cartography=Swiss Federal Office of Topography swisstopo |via=map.geo.admin.ch |scale=Gewässernetz 1:2 Mio |series=National Map 1:2 Mio |access-date=5 January 2016}}</ref> || [[Biber (Rhine)|Biber]], [[Durach (Rhine)|Durach]], [[Wutach (river)|Wutach]], [[Alb (Southern Black Forest)|Alb]], [[Murg (Southern Black Forest)|Murg]], [[Wehra]]<ref name=STHR/>
|-
| 362&nbsp;km{{efn-lr|Basel to Bingen, ''Rheinkilometer'' 167–529; {{cvt|362|km|disp=out}}.}} || The '''[[Upper Rhine]]''' from Basel to [[Bingen am Rhein|Bingen]] forming the [[Upper Rhine Plain]] and in its upper course the [[Franco-German border]] || || 79&nbsp;m || [[Birsig]], [[Ill (France)|Ill]], [[Moder (river)|Moder]], [[Lauter (Rhine)|Lauter]], [[Nahe (Rhine)|Nahe]] || [[Wiese (river)|Wiese]], [[Kander (Germany)|Kander]], [[Elz (Rhine)|Elz]], [[Kinzig (Rhine)|Kinzig]], [[Rench]], [[Acher]], [[Murg (Northern Black Forest)|Murg]], [[Alb (Northern Black Forest)|Alb]], [[Pfinz]], [[Neckar]], [[Main (river)|Main]]
|-
| 159&nbsp;km{{efn-lr|Bingen to Cologne, ''Rheinkilometer'' 529–688; {{cvt|159|km|disp=out}}.}} || The '''[[Middle Rhine]]''' between Bingen and either [[Bonn]] or [[Cologne]] is entirely within Germany, passing the [[Rhine Gorge]]; || || 45&nbsp;m || [[Moselle (river)|Moselle]], [[Nette (Rhine)|Nette]], [[Ahr]] || [[Lahn]], [[Wied (river)|Wied]], [[Sieg (river)|Sieg]]
|-
| 177&nbsp;km{{efn-lr|Cologne to the Dutch-German border, ''Rheinkilometer'' 688–865.5; {{cvt|177|km|disp=out}}.}} || The '''[[Lower Rhine]]''' or {{lang|de|Niederrhein}} downstream of Bonn, passing the [[Lower Rhine region]] of [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]|| || 11&nbsp;m || [[Erft]] || [[Wupper]], [[Düssel]], [[Ruhr (river)|Ruhr]], [[Emscher]], [[Lippe (river)|Lippe]]
|-
| c.&nbsp;50&nbsp;km{{efn-lr|{{cvt|50|km|disp=out}}.}} || The '''[[Nederrijn|Nether Rhine]]''' or {{lang|nl|Nederrijn}} (shortened course of [[Oude Rijn (Gelderland)|Oude Rijn]] within the [[Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta]] in the Netherlands) || 2,900&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s{{efn-lr|The total discharge of the Rhine is subject to significant fluctuations, and average values cited vary between sources; the total discharge given here consists of:
[[Maasmond]], 1450&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s;
[[Haringvliet]], 820&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s;
[[Den Oever]], 310&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s;
[[Kornwerderzand]], 220&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s;
[[IJmuiden]], 9&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s; and the
[[Scheldt–Rhine Canal]], 10&nbsp;m<sup>3</sup>/s.}} || 0&nbsp;m || [[Meuse (river)|Meuse]] || [[Oude IJssel]], [[Berkel]]
|}
{{notelist-lr}}
===Headwaters and sources===
====Sources====
{{Main|Sources of the Rhine}}
[[File:Above Tomasee.JPG|thumb|[[Lake Toma]] seen from the Rhine's upstream end]]
The Rhine carries its name without distinctive accessories only from the [[confluence]] of the [[Vorderrhein|Rein Anteriur/Vorderrhein]] and [[Hinterrhein (river)|Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein]] next to [[Reichenau, Switzerland|Reichenau]] in [[Tamins]]. Above this point is the extensive [[drainage basin|catchment area]] of the [[headwater]]s of the Rhine. This area belongs almost exclusively to the [[cantons of Switzerland|Swiss canton]] of [[Grisons]] ({{lang|de|Graubünden}}), ranging from [[Saint-Gotthard Massif]] in the west via one valley lying in the [[canton of Ticino]] and [[Province of Sondrio|Sondrio]] ([[Lombardy]], Italy) in the south to the [[Flüela Pass]] in the east. The Rhine is one of four major rivers taking their source in the Gotthard region, along with the [[Ticino (river)|Ticino]] (drainage basin of the [[Po (river)|Po]]), [[Rhône]] and [[Reuss (river)|Reuss]] (Rhine basin). The [[Witenwasserenstock]] is the [[triple divide|triple watershed]] between the Rhine, Rhône and Po.
Traditionally, [[Lake Toma]] near the [[Oberalp Pass]] in the Gotthard region is seen as the source of the Anterior Rhine and the Rhine as a whole. The Posterior Rhine rises in the [[Rheinwald]] below the [[Rheinwaldhorn]].
====Anterior Rhine and Posterior Rhine====
{{main|Vorderrhein|Hinterrhein (river)}}
[[File:Rheinzusammenfluss.JPG|thumb|The confluence of the Anterior Rhine to the lower left and the Posterior Rhine in the background forms the [[Alpine Rhine]] (to the left) next to [[Reichenau, Switzerland|Reichenau]].]]
The source of the river is generally considered north of ''[[Tomasee|Lai da Tuma/Tomasee]]'' on ''Rein Anteriur/Vorderrhein'',<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.atlasderschweiz.ch/atlas/en/trial_version/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609183630/http://www.atlasderschweiz.ch/atlas/en/trial_version/ |title=Atlas der Schweiz Switzerland maps by Swiss Federal Office of Topography |archive-date=9 June 2011}}</ref> although its southern tributary ''[[Rein da Medel]]'' is actually longer before its confluence with the Anterior Rhine near [[Disentis]].
:The '''Anterior Rhine''' ({{langx|rm|Rein Anteriur}}, {{langx|de|Vorderrhein}}) springs from ''Lai da Tuma/Tomasee'', near the [[Oberalp Pass]] and passes the impressive ''[[Ruinaulta]]'' formed by the largest visible rock slide in the alps, the [[Flims Rockslide]].
:The '''Posterior Rhine''' ({{langx|rm|Rein Posteriur}}, {{langx|de|Hinterrhein}}) starts from the [[Paradies Glacier]], near the ''Rheinwaldhorn''. One of its tributaries, the ''Reno di Lei'', drains the ''[[Lago di Lei|Valle di Lei]]'' on politically Italian territory. After three main valleys separated by the two gorges, ''[[Roflaschlucht]]'' and ''[[Viamala]]'', it reaches [[Reichenau, Switzerland|Reichenau]] in [[Tamins]].
[[File:Karte Alpenrhein.png|thumb|upright=1.15|Map of the Alpine Rhine]]
The Anterior Rhine arises from numerous source streams in the upper [[Surselva]] and flows in an easterly direction. One source is ''[[Lake Toma|Lai da Tuma]]'' ({{convert|2345|m|abbr=on}})<ref>{{cite map |url=https://s.geo.admin.ch/790e465925 |title=Lai da Tuma |map=1232 - Oberalppass |map-url=https://shop.swisstopo.admin.ch/en/products/maps/national/lk25?layer=ch.swisstopo.landeskarte25_papier.metadata&product=1232&productIdentifier=1232&childGroupIdentifier=lk25eb#product-1232 |scale=1:25 000 |series=National Map 1:25'000 |edition=2015 |date=2013 |publisher=Federal Office of Topography – [[swisstopo]] |location=Wabern, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-302-01232-2 |via=map.geo.admin.ch |access-date=1 March 2018}}</ref> with the ''[[Rein da Tuma]]'', which is usually indicated as source of the Rhine, flowing through it.
Into it flow tributaries from the south, some longer, some equal in length, such as the ''Rein da Medel'', the ''[[Rein da Maighels]]'', and the ''[[Rein da Curnera]]''. The Cadlimo Valley in the [[canton of Ticino]] is drained by the ''Reno di Medel'', which crosses the [[geomorphology|geomorphologic]] Alpine main ridge from the south.{{notetag|The geomorphological ridge line does not necessarily coincide with the [[Drainage divide|watershed]], since it refers to the average altitude in a surrounding circle}} All streams in the source area are partially, sometimes completely, captured and sent to storage reservoirs for the local hydro-electric power plants.
The culminating point of the Anterior Rhine's drainage basin is the [[Piz Russein]] of the Tödi massif of the [[Glarus Alps]] at {{convert|3613|m|sp=us}} above sea level. It starts with the creek ''Aua da Russein'' (lit.: "Water of the Russein").<ref>{{cite map |url=http://s.geo.admin.ch/9324aa0f5 |title=Piz Russein |map=1193 - Tödi |map-url=https://shop.swisstopo.admin.ch/en/products/maps/national/lk25?layer=ch.swisstopo.landeskarte25_papier.metadata&product=1193&productIdentifier=1193&childGroupIdentifier=lk25eb#product-1193 |scale=1:25 000 |series=National Map 1:25'000 |edition=2016 |date=2013 |publisher=Federal Office of Topography – [[swisstopo]] |location=Wabern, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-302-01193-6 |via=map.geo.admin.ch |access-date=28 February 2018}}</ref>
In its lower course, the Anterior Rhine flows through a gorge named ''[[Ruinaulta]]'' (Flims Rockslide). The whole stretch of the Anterior Rhine to the Alpine Rhine confluence next to Reichenau in Tamins is accompanied by a long-distance hiking trail called ''Senda Sursilvana''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://maps.graubuenden.ch/de/tour/weitwanderweg/85-senda-sursilvana-5-etappen-/13223088/|title=85 Senda Sursilvana (5 Etappen)|website=maps.graubuenden.ch|access-date=14 November 2019|archive-date=6 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200106225753/https://maps.graubuenden.ch/de/tour/weitwanderweg/85-senda-sursilvana-5-etappen-/13223088/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The Posterior Rhine flows first east-northeast, then north. It flows through the three valleys named [[Rheinwald]], [[Schams]] and [[Domleschg valley|Domleschg]]-[[Heinzenberg GR|Heinzenberg]]. The valleys are separated by the [[Rofla Gorge]] and [[Viamala]] Gorge. Its sources are located in the [[Adula Alps]] ([[Rheinwaldhorn]], [[Rheinquellhorn]], and [[Güferhorn]]).
The [[Avers Rhine]] joins from the south. One of its headwaters, the ''Reno di Lei'' (stowed in the [[Lago di Lei]]), is partially located in Italy.
Near [[Sils im Domleschg|Sils]] the Posterior Rhine is joined by the [[Albula (river)|Albula]], from the east, from the [[Albula Pass]] region. The Albula draws its water mainly from the [[Landwasser]] with the [[Dischmabach]] as the largest source stream, but almost as much from the [[Gelgia (river)|Gelgia]], which comes down from the [[Julier Pass]].
Numerous larger and smaller tributary rivers bear the name of the ''Rhine'' or equivalent in various [[Romansch language|Romansh]] idioms, including ''Rein'' or ''Ragn'', including:
* Anterior Rhine area: ''Rein Anteriur/Vorderrhein'', ''[[Rein da Medel]]'', ''[[Rein da Tuma]]'', ''[[Rein da Curnera]]'', ''[[Rein da Maighels]]'', ''Rein da Cristallina'', ''Rein da Nalps'', ''Rein da Plattas'', ''Rein da Sumvitg'', ''Rein da Vigliuts'', ''[[Valser Rhine]]''
* Posterior Rhine basin: ''Rein Posteriur/Hinterrhein'', ''[[Lago di Lei|Reno di Lei]]'', ''Madrischer Rhein'', ''[[Avers Rhine]]'', ''Jufer Rhein''
* Albula-Landwasser area: In the [[Dischma]] valley, near Davos, far east of the Rhine, there's a place called ''Am Rin'' ("Upon Rhine"). A tributary of the Dischma is called ''Riner Tälli''. Nearby, on the other side of the [[Sertig]], is the ''Rinerhorn''.
===Alpine Rhine===
{{main|Alpine Rhine}}
[[File:Rhein bei Balzers - Blick auf Gonzen.JPG|thumb|The Rhine between [[Sargans]] in Switzerland (left) and [[Balzers]] in [[Liechtenstein]] (right) with the [[Gonzen]] ({{convert|1829|m|abbr=on}}, left), the [[Girrenspitz]] ({{convert|2099|m|abbr=on}}) in the back, and the Maziferchopf ({{convert|855|m|abbr=on}}) to the right]]
{{see also|Rheintal (disambiguation){{!}}Rheintal}}
Next to [[Reichenau, Switzerland|Reichenau]] in [[Tamins]] the [[Vorderrhein|Anterior Rhine]] and the [[Hinterrhein (river)|Posterior Rhine]] join and form the Alpine Rhine. The river makes a distinctive turn to the north near [[Chur]]. This section is nearly 86&nbsp;km long, and descends from a height of 599 meters to 396 meters. It flows through a wide glacial Alpine valley known as the Rhine Valley ({{langx|de|Rheintal}}). Near [[Sargan]] a natural dam, only a few meters high, prevents it from flowing into the open [[Sztal]] valley and then through [[Lake Walen]] and [[Lake Zurich]] into the [[Aare]]. The Alpine Rhine begins in the westernmost part of the Swiss canton of [[Graubünden]], and later forms the border between Switzerland to the west and Liechtenstein and later Austria to the east.
As an effect of human work, it empties into [[Lake Constance]] on Austrian territory and not on the [[Austria–Switzerland border|border]] that follows its old natural river bed called ''[[Alter Rhein]]'' ({{lit|Old Rhine}}).
The [[Rhine delta (Lake Constance)|mouth of the Rhine]] into Lake Constance forms an [[inland delta]]. The delta is delimited in the west by the ''Alter Rhein'' and in the east by the modern canalized section of the Alpine Rhine ({{lang|de|Fußacher Durchstich}}). Most of the delta is a [[nature reserve]] and [[bird sanctuary]]. It includes the Austrian towns of [[Gaißau]], [[Höchst, Austria|Höchst]] and [[Fußach]]. The natural Rhine originally branched into at least two arms and formed small islands by precipitating sediments. In the local [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] dialect, the singular is pronounced "Isel" and this is also the local pronunciation of ''Esel'' ("[[Donkey]]"). Many local fields have an official name containing this element.
[[File:Aerial image of the mouth of the Rhine into Lake Constance.jpg|thumb|right|Aerial image of the mouth of the Rhine into [[Lake Constance]]]]
A [[Rhine Regulation|regulation of the Rhine]] was called for, with an upper canal near [[Diepoldsau]] and a lower canal at Fußach, in order to counteract the constant flooding and strong [[sedimentation]] in the western Rhine Delta. The [[Dornbirner Ach]] had to be diverted, too, and it now flows parallel to the canalized Rhine into the lake. Its water has a darker color than the Rhine; the latter's lighter suspended load comes from higher up the mountains. It is expected that the continuous input of sediment into the lake will silt up the lake. This has already happened to the former Lake [[Tuggenersee]].
The cut-off Old Rhine at first formed a [[swamp]] landscape. Later an artificial ditch of about two km was dug. It was made navigable to the Swiss town of [[Rheineck SG|Rheineck]].
=== Lake Constance ===
[[File:Bodensee satellit.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Satellite image. In the center and on the right (i.e. to the east) the larger part of Lake Constance, called the ''[[Obersee (Lake Constance)|Obersee]]'', is visible, and it includes, in the lower right, the [[River Delta|delta]] of the [[Alpine Rhine]]. The northwesterly "finger" (on the top left) is ''Lake Überlingen'', containing the island of [[Mainau]]. Below Lake Überlingen (also in the west) is the smaller ''[[Untersee (Lake Constance)|Untersee]]'', containing [[Reichenau Island]]. The Obersee and Untersee are connected by the four kilometers long [[Seerhein]]. On the left the [[High Rhine]] can be seen.]]
{{Main|Lake Constance}}
Lake Constance consists of three bodies of water: the [[Obersee (Lake Constance)|Obersee]] ("upper lake"), the [[Untersee (Lake Constance)|Untersee]] ("lower lake"), and a connecting stretch of the Rhine, called the Seerhein ("Lake Rhine"). The lake is situated in Germany, Switzerland and [[Austria]] near the Alps. Specifically, its shorelines lie in the German states of [[Bavaria]] and [[Baden-Württemberg]], the Austrian state of [[Vorarlberg]], and the Swiss cantons of [[Thurgau]] and [[St. Gallen]]. The Rhine flows into it from the south following the Swiss-Austrian border. It is located at approximately {{coord|47|39|N|9|19|E|type:waterbody}}.
==== Obersee ====
{{Main|Obersee (Lake Constance)}}
The flow of cold, grey mountain water continues for some distance into the lake. The cold water flows near the surface and at first does not mix with the warmer, green waters of Upper Lake. But then, at the so-called ''Rheinbrech'', the Rhine water abruptly falls into the depths because of the greater density of cold water. The flow reappears on the surface at the northern (German) shore of the lake, off the island of [[Lindau (Bodensee)|Lindau]]. The water then follows the northern shore until [[Hagnau am Bodensee]]. A small fraction of the flow is diverted off the island of [[Mainau]] into Lake Überlingen. Most of the water flows via the ''Constance hopper'' into the ''Rheinrinne'' ("Rhine Gutter") and Seerhein. Depending on the water level, this flow of the Rhine water is clearly visible along the entire length of the lake.
The Rhine carries very large amounts of debris into the lake{{snd}}over {{convert|3000000|m3|spell=in|abbr=out|sp=us}} annually.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bergmeister |first1=U. |last2=Kalt |first2=L. |title=Geschiebeführung |trans-title=Conveyance of bedload |url=http://www.rheinregulierung.at/kms/cms/kms.php?id=21&str_id=22&det_back=1 |publisher=Internationale Rheinregulierung |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322191124/http://www.rheinregulierung.at/kms/cms/kms.php?id=21&str_id=22&det_back=1 |archive-date=22 March 2012 |location=Lustenau |language=de |url-status=dead}}</ref> In the mouth region, it is therefore necessary to permanently remove gravel by dredging. The large [[sediment]] loads are partly due to the extensive [[land improvements]] upstream.
Three countries border the Obersee, namely Switzerland in the south, Austria in the southeast and the German states of [[Bavaria]] in the northeast and [[Baden-Württemberg]] in the north and northwest.
==== Seerhein ====
{{Main|Seerhein}}
[[File:Konstanz Blick vom Münsterturm.jpg|thumb|Distance markers along the Rhine indicate distances from this bridge in [[Konstanz]]]]
[[File:Rheinkilometer Loreley.JPG|thumb|right|upright|The 555&nbsp;km marker downstream from the [[Lorelei]]]]
The [[Seerhein]] is only {{Convert|4|km|mi|sp=us}} long. It connects the [[Obersee (Lake Constance)|Obersee]] with the 30&nbsp;cm lower [[Untersee (Lake Constance)|Untersee]]. Distance markers along the Rhine measure the distance from the bridge in the old city center of Konstanz.
For most of its length, the Seerhein forms the border between Germany and Switzerland. The exception is the old city center of Konstanz, on the Swiss side of the river.
The Seerhein emerged in the last thousands of years, when erosion caused the lake level to be lowered by about 10 meters. Previously, the two lakes formed a single lake, as the name still suggests.
==== Untersee ====
{{Main|Untersee (Lake Constance)}}
Like in the Obersee, the flow the Rhine can be traced in the Untersee. Here, too, the river water is hardly mixed with the lake water. The northern parts of the Untersee (Lake Zell and Gnadensee) remain virtually unaffected by the flow. The river traverses the southern, which, in isolation, is sometimes called ''Rhinesee'' ("Lake Rhine").
Besides the ''Seerhein'', the [[Radolfzeller Aach]] is the main tributary of ''Untersee''. It adds large amounts of water from the [[Danube]] system to the ''Untersee'' via the [[Danube Sinkhole]].
Reichenau Island was formed at the same time as the Seerhein, when the water level fell to its current level.
Lake Untersee is part of the [[Germany–Switzerland border|border between Switzerland and Germany]], with Germany on the north bank and Switzerland on the south, except both sides are Swiss in [[Stein am Rhein]], where the [[High Rhine]] flows out of the lake.
===High Rhine===
{{Main|High Rhine}}
[[File:Karte Hochrhein.png|thumb|upright=1.35|The High Rhine]]
[[File:Rheinfall mit Rheinfallbrücke und Schloss Laufen.jpg|thumb|The Rhine Falls near [[Schaffhausen]] ([[Switzerland]])]]
The High Rhine ({{lang|de|Hochrhein}}) begins in [[Stein am Rhein]] at the western end of the Untersee. Now flowing generally westwards, it passes over the [[Rhine Falls]] ({{lang|de|Rheinfall}}) below [[Schaffhausen]] before being joined{{snd}}near [[Koblenz AG|Koblenz]] in the [[canton of Aargau]]{{snd}}by its major tributary, the [[Aare]]. The Aare more than doubles the Rhine's water discharge, to an average of slightly more than {{convert|1000|m3/s|abbr=on}},{{notetag|The fact that the Aare contributes the larger portion of the combined volume{{snd}}51.8%, based on 1961–1990 averages{{sfn|Schädler|Weingartner|2002|loc=Table 1, rows 10-10 and 20-10}}{{snd}}means that in hydrographical terms the Rhine could be considered a tributary of the Aare, but the greater length of the Alpine Rhine means that it retains the designation as main branch.}} and provides more than a fifth of the discharge at the Dutch border. The Aare also contains the waters from the {{convert|4274|m|abbr=on}} summit of [[Finsteraarhorn]], the highest point of the Rhine [[drainage basin|basin]].
Between [[Eglisau]] and [[Basel]], the vast majority of its length, the High Rhine forms the [[German-Swiss border|border between Germany and Switzerland]]. Only for brief distances at its extremities does the river run entirely within Switzerland; at the eastern end it separates the bulk of the [[cantons of Switzerland|canton]] of [[canton of Schaffhausen|Schaffhausen]] and the German [[exclave]] of [[Büsingen am Hochrhein]] on the northern bank from cantons of [[canton of Zürich|Zürich]] and [[Thurgau]], while at the western end it bisects the canton of [[Basel-Stadt]]. Here, at the [[Rhine knee]], the river turns north and leaves Switzerland altogether.
The High Rhine is characterized by numerous dams. On the few remaining natural sections, there are still several [[rapids]]. Over its entire course from Lake Constance to the Swiss border at Basel the river descends from 395&nbsp;m to 252&nbsp;m.
=== Upper Rhine ===
{{Main | Upper Rhine}}
[[File:One autumn morning in Basel v2.jpg|thumb|The Rhine in [[Basel]] is Switzerland's gateway to the sea.]]
[[File:Rhein Mainzer Becken stromab von Mainz bei Eltville und Erbach vor Bingen Foto 2008 Wolfgang Pehlemann Wiesbaden IMG 0263.jpg|thumb|View of the Mainz Basin downstreams of Mainz, from Eltville and Erbach to Bingen]]
In the center of Basel, the first major city in the course of the stream, is the [[Rhine knee]], a major bend, where the overall direction of the Rhine changes from west to north. Here the High Rhine ends. Legally, the Central Bridge is the boundary between High and Upper Rhine. The river now flows north as Upper Rhine through the [[Upper Rhine Plain]], which is about 300&nbsp;km long and up to 40&nbsp;km wide. The most important tributaries in this area are the [[Ill (France)|Ill]] below of Strasbourg, the [[Neckar]] in Mannheim and the [[Main (river)|Main]] across from Mainz. In Mainz, the Rhine leaves the Upper Rhine Valley and flows through the Mainz Basin.
[[File:Fähre-Altrip Schiffe.jpg|thumb|The Rhine at [[Mannheim]], in the [[Rhine-Neckar]] industrial area]]
The southern half of the Upper Rhine forms the [[border]] between France ([[Alsace]]) and Germany (Baden-Württemberg). The northern part forms the border between the German states of [[Rhineland-Palatinate]] in the west on the one hand, and [[Baden-Württemberg]] and [[Hesse]] on the other hand, in the east and north. A curiosity of this border line is that the parts of the city of [[Mainz]] on the right bank of the Rhine were given to Hesse by the occupying forces in 1945.
The Upper Rhine was a significant cultural landscape in Central Europe already in [[Classical Antiquity|antiquity]] and during the [[Middle Ages]]. Today, the Upper Rhine area hosts many important manufacturing and service industries, particularly in the centers Basel, Strasbourg and Mannheim-Ludwigshafen. Strasbourg is the seat of the [[European Parliament]], and so one of the three European capitals is located on the Upper Rhine.
The Upper Rhine region was changed significantly by a Rhine straightening program in the 19th century. The rate of flow was increased and the ground water level fell significantly. Dead branches were removed by construction workers and the area around the river was made more habitable for humans on [[flood plains]] as the rate of flooding decreased sharply. On the French side, the [[Grand Canal d'Alsace]] was dug, which carries a significant part of the river water, and all of the traffic. In some places, there are large compensation pools, for example, the huge ''Bassin de compensation de [[Plobsheim]]'' in Alsace.
The Upper Rhine has undergone significant human change since the 19th century. While it was slightly modified during the Roman occupation, it was not until the emergence of engineers such as [[Johann Gottfried Tulla]] that significant modernization efforts changed the shape of the river. Earlier work under [[Frederick the Great]] surrounded efforts to ease shipping and construct dams to serve [[coal]] transportation.{{sfn|Cioc|2002|pp=48-49}} Tulla is considered to have domesticated the Upper Rhine, a domestication that served goals such as reducing stagnant [[bogs]] that fostered waterborne diseases, making regions more habitable for human settlement, and reduce high frequency of floods. Not long before Tulla went to work on widening and straightening the river, heavy floods caused significant loss of life.{{sfn|Cioc|2002|p=52}} Four diplomatic treaties were signed among German state governments and French regions dealing with the changes proposed along the Rhine, one was "the Treaty for the Rectification of the Rhine flow from Neuberg to Dettenheim"(1817), which surrounded states such as [[Bourbon France]] and the [[Bavarian Palatinate]]. Loops, [[Meander|oxbows]], branches and islands were removed along the Upper Rhine so that there would be uniformity to the river.{{sfn|Cioc|2002|p=53}} The engineering of the Rhine was not without protest, farmers and fishermen had grave concerns about valuable fishing areas and farmland being lost. While some areas lost ground, other areas saw swamps and bogs be drained and turned into arable land.{{sfn|Cioc|2002|p=54}} Johann Tulla had the goal of shortening and straightening the Upper Rhine. Early engineering projects the Upper Rhine also had issues, with Tulla's project at one part of the river creating rapids, after the Rhine cut down from erosion to sheer rock.{{sfn|Cioc|2002|p=54}} Engineering along the Rhine eased flooding and made transportation along the river less cumbersome. These state projects were part of the advanced and technical progress going on in the country alongside the industrial revolution. For the German state, making the river more predictable was to ensure development projects could easily commence.{{sfn|Cioc|2002|p=56}}
The section of the Upper Rhine downstream from [[Mainz]] is also known as the "Island Rhine". Here a number of [[river island]]s occur, locally known as "Rheinauen".
=== Middle Rhine ===
{{Main|Middle Rhine}}
[[File:RheinBeiRüdesheim2008Video.ogv|thumb|Rhine by ship from [[Assmannshausen]] to [[Rüdesheim am Rhein|Rüdesheim]], a 2008 video]]
The Rhine is the longest river in Germany. It is here that the Rhine encounters some more of its main tributaries, such as the [[Neckar]], the [[Main (river)|Main]] and, later, the [[Moselle (river)|Moselle]], which contributes an average discharge of more than {{convert|300|m3/s|abbr=on}}. Northeastern France drains to the Rhine via the Moselle; smaller rivers drain the [[Vosges Mountains|Vosges]] and [[Jura Mountains]] uplands. Most of [[Luxembourg]] and a very small part of [[Belgium]] also drain to the Rhine via the Moselle. As it approaches the Dutch border, the Rhine has an annual mean discharge of {{convert|2290|m3/s|abbr=on}} and an average width of {{convert|400|m|abbr=on}}.
Between [[Bingen am Rhein]] and [[Bonn]], the [[Middle Rhine]] flows through the [[Rhine Gorge]], a formation which was created by [[erosion]]. The rate of erosion equaled the [[tectonic uplift|uplift]] in the region, such that the river was left at about its original level while the surrounding lands raised. The gorge is quite deep and is the stretch of the river which is known for its many castles and vineyards. It is a [[List of World Heritage Sites in Europe|UNESCO World Heritage Site (2002)]] and known as "the Romantic Rhine", with more than 40&nbsp;castles and fortresses from the [[Middle Ages]] and many quaint and lovely country villages.
{{gallery
|mode=packed
|height=150
|align=center
|File:FR-67-Strasbourg35.JPG|Between [[Strasbourg]] and [[Kehl]]
|File:Rhein stromabwärts bei Erbach im Rheingau mit Insel Mariannenau Hessen Landesgrenze Rheinland-Pfalz links - Foto Wolfgang Pehlemann Wiesbaden Photo IMG 0274.jpg|Aerial photo between [[Eltville]] and [[Bingen am Rhein|Bingen]]
|File:Marksburg1900.jpg|[[Marksburg]] near [[Koblenz]], built in 1231
|File:Beschädigte Brücke.jpg|[[Ludendorff Bridge]] at [[Remagen]], showing damage before collapse during the [[Battle of Remagen]]
|File:Cologne (Köln) Rhine River view.jpg|The Rhine in [[Cologne]]
|File:Vue aérienne du Rhin à Dusseldorf.jpg|Rhine at [[Düsseldorf]]
|File:The Rhine Hünxe Germany .jpeg|Rhine at [[Hünxe]], near the border of the [[Netherlands]]
}}
The Mainz Basin ends in [[Bingen am Rhein]]; the Rhine continues as "Middle Rhine" into the [[Rhine Gorge]] in the [[Rhenish Slate Mountains]]. In this sections the river falls from 77.4&nbsp;m above sea level to 50.4&nbsp;m. On the left, is located the mountain ranges of [[Hunsrück]] and [[Eifel]], on the right [[Taunus]] and [[Westerwald]]. According to geologists, the characteristic narrow valley form was created by [[erosion]] by the river while the surrounding landscape was lifted (see [[water gap]]).
Major tributaries in this section are the [[Lahn]] and the [[Moselle]]. They join the Rhine near [[Koblenz]], for the right and left respectively. Almost the entire length of the Middle Rhine runs in the German state of Rhineland-Palatinate.
The dominant economic sectors in the Middle Rhine area are [[viniculture]] and tourism. The [[Rhine Gorge]] between [[Rüdesheim am Rhein]] and [[Koblenz]] is listed as a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]]. Near [[Sankt Goarshausen]], the Rhine flows around the famous rock [[Lorelei]]. With its outstanding architectural monuments, the slopes full of vines, settlements crowded on the narrow river banks and scores of castles lined up along the top of the steep slopes, the Middle Rhine Valley can be considered the epitome of the Rhine romanticism.
=== Lower Rhine ===
{{Main|Lower Rhine}}
[[File:River Rhein Düsseldorf Bird's eye view - Rathausufer vor histor. Altstadt - Rheinufer NRW Wolfgang Pehlemann DSCN1026.jpg|thumb|Low water in [[Düsseldorf]]]]
[[File:Emmerich am Rhein Osten.jpg|thumb|The Lower Rhine at [[Emmerich am Rhein|Emmerich]]]]
In [[Bonn]], where the [[Sieg (river)|Sieg]] flows into the Rhine, the Rhine enters the [[North German Plain]] and turns into the Lower Rhine. The Lower Rhine falls from 50&nbsp;m to 12&nbsp;m. The main tributaries on this stretch are the [[Ruhr]] and the [[Lippe]]. Like the Upper Rhine, the Lower Rhine used to [[meander]] until engineering created a solid river bed. Because the levees are some distance from the river, at high tide the Lower Rhine has more room for widening than the Upper Rhine.
The Lower Rhine flows through [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]. Its banks are usually heavily populated and industrialized, in particular the [[agglomerations]] [[Cologne]], Düsseldorf and [[Ruhr area]]. Here the Rhine flows through the largest conurbation in Germany, the [[Rhine-Ruhr]] region. One of the most important cities in this region is [[Duisburg]] with the largest [[river port]] in Europe (Duisport). The region downstream of Duisburg is more agricultural. In Wesel, 30&nbsp;km downstream of Duisburg, is located the western end of the second east–west shipping route, the Wesel-Datteln Canal, which runs parallel to the Lippe. Between [[Emmerich am Rhein|Emmerich]] and [[Cleves]] the [[Emmerich Rhine Bridge]], the longest suspension bridge in Germany, crosses the {{convert|400|m|ft|adj=mid|-wide|sp=us}} river. Near [[Krefeld]], the river crosses the [[Uerdingen line]], the line which separates the areas where [[Low German]] and [[High German]] are spoken. The Rhine River is crossed by several [[Ferry|ferries]], including the one between [[Bad Honnef]] and [[Rolandseck]], where the [[Lohfelderfähre]] district is situated.
Until the early 1980s, industry was a major source of water pollution. Although many plants and factories can be found along the Rhine up into [[Switzerland]], it is along the [[Lower Rhine]] that the bulk of them are concentrated, as the river passes the major cities of [[Cologne]], [[Düsseldorf]] and [[Duisburg]]. Duisburg is the home of Europe's largest inland port and functions as a hub to the sea ports of [[Rotterdam]], [[Antwerp]] and [[Amsterdam]]. The [[Ruhr (river)|Ruhr]], which joins the Rhine in Duisburg, is nowadays a clean river, thanks to a combination of stricter environmental controls, a transition from heavy industry to light industry and cleanup measures, such as the [[reforestation]] of [[slag heaps|Slag]] and [[Brownfield land|brownfields]]. The Ruhr currently provides the region with drinking water. It contributes {{convert|70|m3/s|abbr=on}} to the Rhine. Other rivers in the [[Ruhr Area]] include the [[Emscher]].
=== Delta ===
{{Main|Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta|Nether Rhine}}
[[File:Maas Delta1.jpg|thumb|The central and northern parts of the Rhine-Meuse delta]]
[[File:Abbinden der Maas von der Waal 1904 aus Hochwasserschutzgründen.gif|thumb | Changing the [[Meuse (river)|Meuse]] estuary in 1904: light blue old course, dark blue today's course]]
[[File:Map of the annual average discharge of Rhine and Maas 2000-2011 (EN).png|thumb|Map showing how the waters of the Rhine and Meuse rivers split into various branches of their combined delta]]
[[File:John Frostbrug.jpg|thumb|The [[Nederrijn]] at [[Arnhem]]]]
The Dutch name for Rhine is "Rijn". The Rhine turns west and enters the [[Netherlands]], where, together with the rivers [[Meuse (river)|Meuse]] and [[Scheldt]], it forms the extensive [[Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta]], with {{convert|25347|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} the largest [[river delta]] in Europe.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Tockner |first1=K. |last2=Uehlinger |first2=U. |last3=Robinson |first3=C. T. |last4=Siber |first4=R. |last5=Tonolla |first5=D. |last6=Peter |first6=F. D.  |editor-last=Likens |editor-first=G. E. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Inland Waters |title=European Rivers |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |volume=3 |location=Amsterdam |isbn=978-0-12-370630-0 |oclc=319211428 |doi=10.1016/B978-012370626-3.00044-2 |pages=366–377}}</ref> Crossing the border into the Netherlands at [[Spijk (Rijnwaarden)|Spijk]], close to [[Nijmegen]] and [[Arnhem]], the Rhine is at its widest, although the river then splits into three main [[distributary|distributaries]]: the [[Waal (river)|Waal]], [[Nederrijn]] ("Nether Rhine") and [[IJssel]].
From here, the situation becomes more complicated, as the Dutch name ''Rijn'' no longer coincides with the main flow of water. Two-thirds of the water flow volume of the Rhine flows farther west, through the Waal and then, via the [[Merwede]] and [[Nieuwe Merwede]] ([[De Biesbosch]]), merging with the Meuse, through the [[Hollands Diep]] and [[Haringvliet]] [[estuary|estuaries]], into the [[North Sea]]. The [[Beneden Merwede]] branches off, near [[Hardinxveld-Giessendam]] and continues as the [[Noord (river)|Noord]], to join the [[Lek (river)|Lek]], near the village of [[Kinderdijk]], to form the [[Nieuwe Maas]]; then flows past [[Rotterdam]] and continues via [[Het Scheur]] and the [[Nieuwe Waterweg]], to the North Sea. The [[Oude Maas]] branches off, near [[Dordrecht]], farther down rejoining the [[Nieuwe Maas]] to form [[Het Scheur]].
The other third of the water flows through the [[Pannerdens Kanaal]] and redistributes in the IJssel and Nederrijn. The IJssel branch carries one ninth of the water flow of the ''Rhine'' north into the [[IJsselmeer]] (a former bay), while the Nederrijn carries approximately two-ninths of the flow west along a route parallel to the Waal. However, at [[Wijk bij Duurstede]], the Nederrijn changes its name and becomes the [[Lek (river)|Lek]]. It flows farther west, to rejoin the [[Noord (river)|Noord]] into the [[Nieuwe Maas]] and to the North Sea.
The name ''Rijn'', from here on, is used only for smaller streams farther to the north, which together formed the main river Rhine in [[Roman Empire|Roman]] times. Though they retained the name, these streams no longer carry water from the Rhine, but are used for draining the surrounding land and [[polder]]s. From Wijk bij Duurstede, the old north branch of the Rhine is called [[Kromme Rijn]] ("Bent Rhine") past [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]], first [[Leidse Rijn]] ("Rhine of [[Leiden]]") and then, [[Oude Rijn (Utrecht and South Holland)|Oude Rijn]] ("Old Rhine"). The latter flows west into a [[sluice]] at [[Katwijk]], where its waters can be discharged into the [[North Sea]]. This branch once formed the line along which the [[Limes Germanicus]] were built. During periods of lower sea levels within the various ice ages, the Rhine took a left turn, creating the [[Channel River]], the course of which now lies below the English Channel.
The Rhine-Meuse Delta, the most important [[natural region]] of the [[Netherlands]] begins near [[Millingen aan de Rijn]], close to the Dutch-German border with the division of the Rhine into [[Waal (river)|Waal]] and [[Nederrijn]]. The region between the Dutch-German border and Rotterdam, where the Waal, Lek, and Meuse run more or less parallel, is colloquially known as the "Great Rivers". Since the Rhine contributes most of the water, the shorter term ''Rhine Delta'' is commonly used. However, this name is also used for the [[river delta]] where the Rhine flows into [[Lake Constance]], so it is clearer to call the larger one ''Rhine-Meuse delta'', or even ''[[Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta]]'', as the Scheldt ends in the same delta.
The shape of the Rhine delta is determined by two [[River bifurcation|bifurcation]]s: first, at [[Millingen aan de Rijn]], the Rhine splits into [[Waal (river)|Waal]] and [[Pannerdens Kanaal]], which changes its name to [[Nederrijn]] at [[Angeren]], and second near [[Arnhem]], the [[IJssel]] branches off from the Nederrijn. This creates three main flows, two of which change names rather often. The largest and southern main branch begins as Waal and continues as [[Boven Merwede]] ("Upper Merwede"), [[Beneden Merwede]] ("Lower Merwede"), [[Noord (river)|Noord]] ("the North"), [[Nieuwe Maas]] ("New Meuse"), [[Het Scheur]] ("the Rip") and [[Nieuwe Waterweg]] ("New Waterway"). The middle flow begins as [[Nederrijn]], then changes into [[Lek (river)|Lek]], then joins the Noord, thereby forming Nieuwe Maas. The northern flow keeps the name IJssel until it flows into Lake [[IJsselmeer]]. Three more flows carry significant amounts of water: the [[Nieuwe Merwede]] ("New Merwede"), which branches off from the southern branch where it changes from Boven to Beneden Merwede; the [[Oude Maas]] ("Old Meuse"), which branches off from the southern branch where it changes from Beneden Merwede into Noord, and [[Dordtse Kil]], which branches off from Oude Maas.
Before the [[St. Elizabeth's flood (1421)]], the [[Meuse (river)|Meuse]] flowed just south of today's line Merwede-Oude Maas to the North Sea and formed an [[archipelago]]-like estuary with Waal and Lek. This system of numerous bays, estuary-like extended rivers, many islands and constant changes of the coastline, is hard to imagine today. From 1421 to 1904, the Meuse and Waal merged further upstream at [[Gorinchem]] to form [[Merwede]]. For flood protection reasons, the Meuse was separated from the Waal through a lock and diverted into a new outlet called "[[Bergse Maas]]", then [[Amer (river)|Amer]] and then flows into the former bay Hollands Diep.
The northwestern part of the estuary (around [[Hook of Holland]]), is still called ''Maasmond'' ("Meuse Mouth"), ignoring the fact that it now carries only water from the Rhine. This might explain the confusing naming of the various branches.
The hydrography of the current delta is characterized by the delta's main arms, disconnected arms ([[Hollandse IJssel]], [[Linge]], [[Vecht (Utrecht)|Vecht]], etc.) and smaller rivers and streams. Many rivers have been closed ("dammed") and now serve as drainage channels for the numerous [[polders]]. The construction of [[Delta Works]] changed the Delta in the second half of the 20th century fundamentally. Currently Rhine water runs into the sea, or into former marine bays now separated from the sea, in five places, namely at the mouths of the Nieuwe Merwede, Nieuwe Waterway (Nieuwe Maas), Dordtse Kil, [[Spui (river)|Spui]] and IJssel.
The Rhine-Meuse Delta is a tidal delta, shaped not only by the [[sedimentation]] of the rivers, but also by tidal currents. This meant that high tide formed a serious risk because strong tidal currents could tear huge areas of land into the sea. Before the construction of the Delta Works, tidal influence was palpable up to Nijmegen, and even today, after the regulatory action of the Delta Works, the [[tide]] acts far inland. At the Waal, the most landward tidal influence can be detected between [[Brakel, Gelderland|Brakel]] and [[Zaltbommel]].
==Geologic history==
===Alpine orogeny===
[[File:Rhinegrabencross.jpg|thumb|Schematic cross section of the [[Upper Rhine Graben]]]]
The Rhine flows from the [[Alps]] to the [[North Sea#Geological history|North Sea Basin]]. The geography and geology of its present-day watershed has been developing since the [[Alpine orogeny]] began.
In southern Europe, the stage was set in the [[Triassic]] Period of the [[Mesozoic]] Era, with the opening of the [[Tethys Ocean]], between the Eurasian and African [[plate tectonics|tectonic plates]], between about 240&nbsp;[[Before Present|MBP]] and 220&nbsp;MBP (million years before present). The present [[Mediterranean Sea]] descends from this somewhat larger Tethys sea. At about 180&nbsp;MBP, in the [[Jurassic]] Period, the two plates reversed direction and began to compress the Tethys floor, causing it to be subducted under Eurasia and pushing up the edge of the latter plate in the Alpine Orogeny of the [[Oligocene]] and [[Miocene]] Periods. Several microplates were caught in the squeeze and rotated or were pushed laterally, generating the individual features of Mediterranean geography: Iberia pushed up the [[Pyrenees]]; [[Italy]], the Alps, and [[Anatolia]], moving west, the mountains of [[Greece]] and the islands. The compression and orogeny continue today, as shown by the ongoing raising of the mountains a small amount each year and the active volcanoes.
In northern Europe, the North Sea Basin had formed during the Triassic and Jurassic periods and continued to be a sediment receiving basin since. In between the zone of Alpine orogeny and North Sea Basin subsidence, highlands resulting from an earlier orogeny ([[Variscan orogeny|Variscan]]) remained, such as the [[Ardennes]], [[Eifel]] and [[Vosges]].
From the [[Eocene]] onward, the ongoing Alpine orogeny caused a north–south rift system to develop in this zone. The main elements of this rift are the [[Upper Rhine Graben]], in southwest Germany and eastern France and the Lower Rhine Embayment, in northwest Germany and the southeastern [[Netherlands]]. By the time of the Miocene, a river system had developed in the [[Upper Rhine Graben]], that continued northward and is considered the first Rhine river. At that time, it did not yet carry discharge from the Alps; instead, the watersheds of the [[Rhone]] and [[Danube]] drained the northern flanks of the Alps.
===Stream capture===
The watershed of the Rhine reaches into the [[Alps]] today, but it did not start out that way.<ref name="Ber">{{harvnb|Berendsen|Stouthamer|2001}}</ref> In the [[Miocene]] period, the watershed of the Rhine reached south, only to the [[Eifel]] and [[Westerwald]] hills, about {{convert|450|km|abbr=on}} north of the Alps. The Rhine then had the [[Sieg (river)|Sieg]] as a tributary, but not yet the [[Moselle]]. The northern Alps were then drained by the [[Danube]].
Through [[stream capture]], the Rhine extended its watershed southward. By the [[Pliocene]] period, the Rhine had captured streams down to the [[Vosges Mountains]], including the [[Main (river)|Main]] and the [[Neckar]]. The northern Alps were then drained by the [[Rhone]]. By the early [[Pleistocene]] period, the Rhine had captured most of its current Alpine watershed from the Rhône, including the [[Aare]]. Since that time, the Rhine has added the watershed above [[Lake Constance]] ([[Vorderrhein]], [[Hinterrhein (river)|Hinterrhein]], Alpenrhein; captured from the Rhône), the upper reaches of the Main, beyond [[Schweinfurt]] and the Moselle in the Vosges Mountains, captured during the Saale Ice-age from the [[Meuse (river)|Meuse]], to its watershed.
Around 2.5&nbsp;million years ago (ending 11,600 years ago) the Ice Ages began. Since approximately 600,000&nbsp;years ago, six major glacial periods have occurred, in which sea level dropped as much as {{convert|120|m|abbr=on}} and much of the continental margins were exposed. In the [[Early Pleistocene]], the Rhine followed a course to the northwest, through the present North Sea. During the so-called [[Anglian glaciation]] (~450,000&nbsp;yr&nbsp;BP, marine oxygen isotope stage&nbsp;12), the northern part of the present [[North Sea]] was blocked by the ice and a large lake developed, that overflowed through the English Channel. This caused the Rhine's course to be diverted through the English Channel. Since then, during glacial times, the river mouth was located offshore of [[Brest, France]] and rivers, like the [[River Thames]] and the [[Seine]], became tributaries to the Rhine. During interglacials, when sea level rose to approximately the present level, the Rhine built deltas in what is now the Netherlands.
The most recent [[glacier|glacial]] period ran from ~74,000 (BP = Before Present), until the end of the [[Pleistocene]] (~11,600&nbsp;BP). In northwest Europe, it saw two very cold phases, peaking around 70,000&nbsp;BP and around 29,000–24,000&nbsp;BP. The last phase slightly predates the global last ice age maximum ([[Last Glacial Maximum]]). During this time, the lower Rhine flowed roughly west through the Netherlands and extended to the southwest, through the English Channel and finally, to the Atlantic Ocean. The English Channel, the Irish Channel and most of the [[North Sea]] were dry land, mainly because sea level was approximately {{convert|120|m|abbr=on}} lower than today.
Most of the Rhine's current course was not under the ice during the last Ice Age; although, its source must still have been a glacier. A [[tundra]], with Ice Age flora and fauna, stretched across middle Europe, from Asia to the Atlantic Ocean. Such was the case during the [[Last Glacial Maximum]], ca. 22,000–14,000&nbsp;yr&nbsp;BP, when ice-sheets covered Scandinavia, the Baltics, Scotland and the Alps, but left the space between as open tundra. [[Loess]] (wind-blown topsoil dust) arose from the south and North Sea plain settling on the slopes of the Alps, Urals and the Rhine Valley, rendering the valleys facing the prevailing winds especially fertile.
===End of the last glacial period===
As northwest Europe slowly began to warm from 22,000 years ago onward, frozen [[subsoil]] and expanded [[alpine glaciers]] began to thaw and fall-winter snow covers melted in spring. Much of the discharge was routed to the Rhine and its downstream extension.{{sfn|Ménot|Bard|Rostek|Weijers|2006}} Rapid warming and changes of vegetation, to open forest, began about 13,000&nbsp;BP. By 9000&nbsp;BP, Europe was fully forested. With globally shrinking ice-cover, ocean water levels rose and the English Channel and North Sea re-inundated. Meltwater, adding to the ocean and land [[subsidence]], drowned the former coasts of Europe [[transgression (geology)|transgressionally]].
About 11000 years ago, the Rhine estuary was in the Strait of Dover. There remained some dry land in the southern [[North Sea]], known as [[Doggerland]], connecting mainland Europe to Britain. About 9000 years ago, that last divide was overtopped / dissected. Humans were already resident in the area when these events happened.
Since 7500 years ago the situation of tides, currents and land-forms has resembled the present. Rates of [[sea level rise]] dropped such that natural sedimentation by the Rhine and coastal processes widely compensate for transgression by the sea. In the southern [[North Sea]], due to ongoing [[tectonic subsidence]], the coastline and sea bed are sinking at the rate of about {{convert|1|-|3|cm|in|abbr=on}} per century (1&nbsp;meter or 39&nbsp;inches in last 3000&nbsp;years).
About 7000–5000 BP, a general warming encouraged migration of all former ice-locked areas, including up the [[Danube]] and down the Rhine by peoples to the east. A [[Black Sea deluge hypothesis|sudden massive expansion of the Black Sea]] as the [[Mediterranean Sea]] burst into it through the [[Bosporus]] may have occurred about 7500&nbsp;BP.
===Holocene delta===
At the beginning of the [[Holocene]] (~11,700 years ago), the Rhine occupied its Late-Glacial valley. As a [[meander]]ing river, it reworked its ice-age floodplain. As sea-level rise continued in the Netherlands, the formation of the Holocene Rhine-Meuse delta began (~8,000&nbsp;years ago). Coeval absolute sea-level rise and [[tectonic]] subsidence have strongly influenced delta evolution. Other factors of importance to the shape of the delta are the local tectonic activities of the [[Peel Boundary Fault]], the substrate and [[geomorphology]], as inherited from the Last Glacial period and the coastal-marine dynamics, such as barrier and tidal inlet formations.{{sfn|Cohen|Stouthamer|Berendsen|2002}}
Since ~3000 yr BP (= years Before Present), human impact is seen in the delta. As a result of increasing land clearance ([[Bronze Age]] agriculture), in the upland areas (central Germany), the sediment load of the Rhine has strongly increased{{sfn|Hoffmann|Erkens|Cohen|Houben|2007}} and delta growth has sped up.{{sfn|Gouw|Erkens|2007}} This has caused increased flooding and sedimentation, ending peat formation in the delta. In the geologically recent past the main process distributing sediment across the delta has been the shifting of river channels to new locations on the floodplain (termed avulsion). Over the past 6000&nbsp;years, approximately 80&nbsp;avulsions have occurred.<ref name="Ber" /> Direct human impact in the delta began with the mining of [[peat]] for salt and fuel from [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times onward. This was followed by embankment of the major distributaries and damming of minor distributaries, which took place in the 11–13th century AD. Thereafter, canals were dug, bends were straightened and [[groynes]] were built to prevent the river's channels from migrating or silting up.
At present, the branches Waal and Nederrijn-Lek discharge to the North Sea through the former Meuse [[estuary]], near Rotterdam. The river IJssel branch flows to the north and enters the [[IJsselmeer]] (formerly the [[Zuider Zee]]), initially a brackish lagoon but a freshwater lake since 1932. The discharge of the Rhine is divided into three branches: the Waal (6/9 of total discharge), the Nederrijn – Lek (2/9 of total discharge) and the IJssel (1/9 of total discharge). This discharge distribution has been maintained since 1709 by river engineering works including the digging of the [[Pannerdens Kanaal]] and the installation, in the 20th century, of a series of weirs on the [[Nederrijn]].
==Military and cultural history==
{{main|Rhineland}}
{{further|Rhenus Pater}}
{{unreferenced section|date=January 2011}}
[[File:Loreley von Spitznack.jpg|thumb|[[Loreley]]]]
===Antiquity===
{{further|Limes Germanicus|Crossing of the Rhine}}
The Rhine was not known to [[Herodotus]] and first enters the historical period in the 1st century BC in [[Greco-Roman geography|Roman-era geography]]. At that time, it formed the boundary between [[Gaul]] and [[Germania]]. ''It is estimated that Germanic tribes have been inhabiting the area since 2000 BCE.'' <sup>[no source]</sup>
The Upper Rhine had been part of the areal of the late [[Hallstatt culture]] since the 6th century BC, and by the 1st century BC, the areal of the [[La Tène culture]] covered almost its entire length, forming a contact zone with the [[Jastorf culture]], i.e. the locus of early [[Celts|Celtic]]-[[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] cultural contact.
In Roman geography, the Rhine formed the boundary between ''Gallia'' and ''Germania'' by definition; e.g. [[Maurus Servius Honoratus]], ''Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil'' (8.727) ''(Rhenus) fluvius Galliae, qui Germanos a Gallia dividit'' "(The Rhine is a) river of Gaul, which divides the Germanic people from Gaul."
In Roman geography, the Rhine and [[Hercynia Silva]] were considered the boundary of the civilized world; as it was a wilderness, the Romans were eager to explore it. This view is typified by ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]'', a long public inscription of [[Augustus]], in which he boasts of his exploits; including, sending an expeditionary fleet north of the Rheinmouth, to [[Old Saxony]] and [[Jutland]], which he claimed no Roman had ever done before.
Augustus ordered his stepson Roman general [[Nero Claudius Drusus|Drusus]] to establish 50 [[castra|military camps]] along the Rhine, starting the [[Germanic Wars]] in 12 BC. At this time, the plain of the [[Lower Rhine]] was the territory of the [[Ubii]]. The first urban settlement, on the grounds of what is today Downtown Cologne, along the Rhine, was ''Oppidum Ubiorum'', which was founded in 38&nbsp;BC by the Ubii. Cologne became acknowledged, as a city by the Romans in AD&nbsp;50, by the name of ''Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium''.
[[File:Castellum NigrumPullum vogelvlucht impressie Stevie Xinas 2016.jpg|thumb|Castellum ''Nigrum Pullum'', [[Zwammerdam]], Netherlands, artist impression Stevie Xinas]]
From the death of Augustus in AD 14 until after AD 70, Rome accepted as her [[Limes Germanicus|Germanic frontier]] the water-boundary of the Rhine and upper [[Danube]]. Beyond these rivers she held only the fertile plain of [[Frankfurt]], opposite the Roman border fortress of Moguntiacum ([[Mainz]]), the southernmost slopes of the [[Black Forest]] and a few scattered bridge-heads. The northern section of this frontier, where the Rhine is deep and broad, remained the Roman boundary until the empire fell. The southern part was different. The upper Rhine and upper Danube are easily crossed. The frontier which they form is inconveniently long, enclosing an acute-angled wedge of foreign territory between the modern [[Baden]] and [[Württemberg]]. The Germanic populations of these lands seem in Roman times to have been scanty, and Roman subjects from the modern [[Alsace-Lorraine]] had drifted across the river eastwards.
The Romans kept eight legions in five bases along the Rhine. The number was reduced to four as more units were moved to the Danube. The actual number of legions present at any base or in all, depended on whether a state or threat of war existed. Between about AD&nbsp;14 and 180, the assignment of legions was as follows:
For the army of [[Germania Inferior]], two legions at Vetera ([[Xanten]]), ''[[Legio I Germanica|I Germanica]]'' and ''[[Legio XX Valeria Victrix|XX Valeria]]'' ([[Pannonia]]n troops); two legions at oppidum Ubiorum ("town of the [[Ubii]]"), which was renamed to Colonia Agrippina, descending to [[Cologne]], ''[[Legio V Alaudae|V Alaudae]]'', a Celtic legion recruited from [[Gallia Narbonensis]] and ''[[Legio XXI Rapax|XXI]]'', possibly a [[Galatia]]n legion from the other side of the empire.
For the army of [[Germania Superior]]: one legion, ''[[Legio II Augusta|II Augusta]]'', at [[Argentoratum]] ([[Strasbourg]]); and one, ''[[Legio XIII Gemina|XIII Gemina]]'', at [[Vindonissa]] ([[Windisch, Switzerland|Windisch]]). Vespasian had commanded II&nbsp;Augusta, before he became emperor. In addition, were a double legion, XIV and XVI, at Moguntiacum ([[Mainz]]).
The two original military districts of [[Germania Inferior]] and [[Germania Superior]], came to influence the surrounding tribes, who later respected the distinction in their alliances and confederations. For example, the upper Germanic peoples combined into the [[Alamanni|Alemanni]]. For a time, the Rhine ceased to be a border, when the [[Franks]] crossed the river and occupied Roman-dominated Celtic [[Gaul]], as far as Paris.
[[Germanic tribes]] [[Crossing of the Rhine|crossed the Rhine]] in the [[Migration period]], by the 5th century establishing the kingdoms of [[Francia]] on the [[Lower Rhine]], [[Kingdom of the Burgundians|Burgundy]] on the [[Upper Rhine]] and [[Alemannia]] on the [[High Rhine]]. This "[[Germanic Heroic Age]]" is reflected in medieval legend, such as the {{Lang|de|[[Nibelungenlied]]}} which tells of the hero Siegfried killing a dragon on the [[Drachenfels (Siebengebirge)]] ("dragons rock"), near [[Bonn]] at the Rhine and of the Burgundians and their court at Worms, at the Rhine and Kriemhild's golden treasure, which was thrown into the Rhine by Hagen.
===Medieval and modern history===
{{further|Rhine romanticism}}
[[File:Louis XIV crosses the Rhine at Lobith - Lodewijk XIV trekt bij het Tolhuis bij Lobith de Rijn over, 12 juni 1672 (Adam Frans van der Meulen).jpg|thumb|French forces under [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] [[Franco-Dutch War|cross the Rhine]] into the Netherlands in 1672.]]
By the 6th century, the Rhine was within the borders of [[Francia]]. In the 9th, it formed part of the border between [[Middle Francia|Middle]] and [[Eastern Francia]], but in the 10th century, it was fully within the [[Holy Roman Empire]], flowing through [[Swabia]], [[Franconia]] and [[Lower Lorraine]]. The mouths of the Rhine, in the [[county of Holland]], fell to the [[Burgundian Netherlands]] in the 15th century; Holland remained contentious territory throughout the [[European wars of religion]] and the eventual collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, when the length of the Rhine fell to the [[First French Empire]] and its client states. The [[Alsace]] on the left banks of the [[Upper Rhine]] was sold to Burgundy by Archduke [[Sigismund of Austria]] in 1469 and eventually fell to [[kingdom of France|France]] in the [[Thirty Years' War]]. The numerous historic [[List of castles in Rhineland-Palatinate|castles in Rhineland-Palatinate]] attest to the importance of the river as a commercial route.
Since the [[Peace of Westphalia]], the Upper Rhine formed a contentious border between France and Germany. Establishing "[[natural border]]s" on the Rhine was a long-term goal of French foreign policy, since the [[Middle Ages]], though the [[language border]] was – and is – far more to the west. French leaders, such as [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] and [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], tried with varying degrees of success to annex lands west of the Rhine. The [[Confederation of the Rhine]] was established by Napoleon, as a French [[client state]], in 1806 and lasted until 1814, during which time it served as a significant source of resources and military manpower for the [[First French Empire]]. In 1840, the [[Rhine crisis]], prompted by French prime minister [[Adolphe Thiers]]{{'s}} desire to reinstate the Rhine as a natural border, led to a diplomatic crisis and a wave of nationalism in Germany.
[[File:Royal Newfoundland Regiment crossing the Rhine into Germany.jpg|right|thumb|Allied soldiers of the [[Royal Newfoundland Regiment]] crossing the Rhine into Germany after the end of WWI, December 1918]]
The Rhine became an important symbol in [[German nationalism]] during the formation of the German state in the 19th century (see [[Rhine romanticism]]).
* The song ''[[Die Wacht am Rhein]]'', which almost became a national anthem.
* ''[[Das Rheingold]]'' – inspired by the {{Lang|de|[[Nibelungenlied]]}}, the Rhine is one of the settings for the first opera of [[Richard Wagner]]'s ''[[Der Ring des Nibelungen]]''. The action of the epic opens and ends underneath the Rhine, where three Rheinmaidens swim and protect a hoard of gold.
* The [[Loreley]]/Lorelei is a rock on the eastern bank of the Rhine, that is associated with several legendary tales, poems and songs. The river spot has a reputation for being a challenge for inexperienced navigators.
At the end of [[World War I]], the [[Rhineland]] was subject to the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. This decreed that it would be occupied by the allies, until 1935 and after that, it would be a demilitarized zone, with the German army forbidden to enter. The Treaty of Versailles and this particular provision, in general, caused much resentment in Germany. The Allies' troops left the Rhineland in 1930 and, following the rise to power of [[Adolf Hitler]], the German army re-occupied it in 1936, which proved an enormously popular action in Germany. Although the Allies could probably have prevented the reoccupation, Britain and France were not inclined to do so, a feature of their policy of [[appeasement]] to Hitler.
[[File:Crossingtherhine.jpg|thumb|Soldiers of the [[US 89th Infantry Division]] cross the Rhine in assault boats under German fire as part of [[Operation Plunder]] on 24 March 1945.]]
In [[World War II]], it was recognized that the Rhine would present a [[Western Allied invasion of Germany|formidable natural obstacle to the invasion of Germany, by the Western Allies]]. The Rhine bridge at [[Arnhem]], immortalized in the book, ''[[A Bridge Too Far (book)|A Bridge Too Far]]'' and the [[A Bridge Too Far (film)|film]], was a central focus of the [[battle of Arnhem]], during the failed [[Operation Market Garden]] of September 1944. The bridges at [[Nijmegen]], over the Waal distributary of the Rhine, were also an objective of [[Operation Market Garden]]. In a separate operation, the [[Ludendorff Bridge]], crossing the Rhine at [[Remagen]], became famous, when U.S. forces were able to capture it intact – much to their own surprise – after the Germans failed to demolish it. This also became the subject of a film, ''[[The Bridge at Remagen]]''.
''[[Seven Days to the River Rhine]]'' was a [[Warsaw Pact]] war plan for an invasion of Western Europe during the [[Cold War]].
Until 1932, the generally accepted length of the Rhine was {{Convert|1230|km|mi|sp=us}}. In 1932 the German encyclopedia Knaurs Lexikon stated the length as {{Convert|1320|km|mi|sp=us}}, presumably a typographical error.
After this number was placed into the authoritative Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, it became generally accepted and found its way into numerous textbooks and official publications. The error was discovered in 2010, and the Dutch Rijkswaterstaat confirms the length at {{convert|1232|km|mi|abbr=off|sp=us}}.{{notetag|name=length}}
==Lists of features==
===Cities on the Rhine===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
Large cities that are situated on the Rhine:
'''Switzerland:'''
*[[Basel]]
'''France:'''
*[[Strasbourg]]
'''Germany:'''
*[[Karlsruhe]]
*[[Mannheim]]
*[[Ludwigshafen]]
*[[Wiesbaden]]
*[[Mainz]]
*[[Koblenz]]
*[[Bonn]]
*[[Cologne]]
*[[Leverkusen]]
*[[Neuss]]
*[[Düsseldorf]]
*[[Krefeld]] ([[Uerdingen]])
*[[Duisburg]]
'''Netherlands:'''
*[[Arnhem]] (Nederrijn)
*[[Nijmegen]] (Waal)
*[[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]] (Kromme Rijn)
*[[Rotterdam]] (Nieuwe Maas)
{{col-break}}
Smaller cities that are situated on the Rhine:
'''Switzerland:'''
*[[Chur]]
*[[Kreuzlingen]]
*[[Schaffhausen]]
'''Liechtenstein:'''
*[[Vaduz]]
'''Germany:'''
*[[Konstanz]]
*[[Breisach]]
*[[Speyer]]
*[[Worms, Germany|Worms]]
*[[Bingen am Rhein]]
*[[Rüdesheim am Rhein]]
*[[Neuwied]]
*[[Andernach]]
*[[Bad Honnef]]
*[[Königswinter]]
*[[Niederkassel]]
*[[Wesseling]]
*[[Dormagen]]
*[[Zons]]
*[[Monheim am Rhein]]
*[[Wesel]]
*[[Xanten]]
*[[Emmerich am Rhein]]
'''Netherlands:'''
*[[Zutphen]] (IJssel)
*[[Deventer]] (IJssel)
*[[Zwolle]] (IJssel)
*[[Kampen, Overijssel|Kampen]] (IJssel)
*[[Leiden]] (Oude Rijn)
* [[Dordrecht]] (Merwede)
* [[Wageningen]] (Nederrijn)
* [[Woerden]] (Oude Rijn)
* [[Wijk bij Duurstede]] (Neder Rijn / Kromme Rijn / Lek)
* [[Alphen aan den Rijn]] (Oude Rijn)
{{col-end}}{{clear}}
===Countries and borders===
During its course from the Alps to the North Sea, the Rhine passes through four countries and constitutes six different country borders. On the various parts:
* the Anterior Rhine lies entirely within Switzerland, while at least one tributary to Posterior Rhine, ''Reno di Lei'' originates in Italy, but is not considered a part of the Rhine proper.
* the Alpine Rhine flows within Switzerland till [[Sargans]], from which it becomes the border between Switzerland (to the west) and Liechtenstein (to the east) until [[Oberriet]], and the river never flows within Liechtenstein. It then becomes the border between Switzerland (to the west) and Austria (to the east) until [[Diepoldsau]] where the modern and straight course enters Switzerland, while the original course ''Alter Rhein'' makes a bend to the east and continues as the Swiss-Austrian border until the confluence at [[Widnau]]. From here the river continues as the border until [[Lustenau]], where the modern and straight course enters Austria (the only part of the river that flows within Austria), while the original course makes a bend to the west and continues as the border, until both courses enter [[Lake Constance]].
* the first half of ''Seerhein'', between the upper and lower body of Lake Constance, flows within Germany (and the city of [[Konstanz]]), while the second is the German (to the north) – Swiss (to the south) frontier.
* the first parts of the High Rhine, from Lake Constance to [[Altholz]], the river alternates flowing within Switzerland and being the German-Swiss frontier (three times each). From Altholz the river is the German-Swiss border until [[Basel]], where it enters Switzerland for the last time.
* the Upper Rhine is the border between France (to the west) and Switzerland (to the east) for a short distance, from Basel to [[Hunningue]]. Here it becomes the Franco (to the west) – German (to the east) frontier until [[Au am Rhein]]. Hence, the main course of the Rhine never flows within France, although some river canals do. From Au am Rhein the river flows within Germany.
* the Middle Rhine flows entirely within Germany.
* the Lower Rhine flows within Germany until [[Emmerich am Rhein]], where it becomes the border between The Netherlands (to the north) and Germany (to the south). At [[Millingen aan de Rijn]] the river enters the Netherlands.
* all parts of the Delta Rhein flows within the Netherlands until they enter the [[North Sea]], [[IJsselmeer]] ([[IJssel]]) or [[Haringvliet]] ([[Waal (river)|Waal]]) at the Dutch coast.
===Bridges===
{{Main|List of bridges over the Rhine}}
===Former distributaries===
''Order: panning north to south through the Western Netherlands'':
* [[Vecht (Utrecht)]] (minor channel in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times, flowing into former [[Zuider Zee]] lagoon)
* [[Kromme Rijn]] – [[Oude Rijn (Utrecht and South Holland)]] (main channel in Roman times, dammed in the 12th century)
* [[Hollandse IJssel]] (formed after Roman times, dammed in the 13th century AD)
* [[Linge]] (big channel in Roman times, dammed in the 14th century AD)
* [[De Biesbosch]]-area (initiated by AD 1421–1424 storm surges and river floods, by-passed since the digging of [[Nieuwe Merwede]] canal in AD&nbsp;1904)
===Canals===
''Order: upstream to downstream'':
* [[Rhine–Main–Danube Canal]] – southeastern Germany
* [[Grand Canal d'Alsace]] – eastern France
* [[Rhine-Herne Canal]] – northwest Germany, connection to the [[Dortmund-Ems Canal]] and the [[Mittellandkanal]]
* [[Maas-Waal Canal]] – eastcentral [[Netherlands]]
* [[Amsterdam-Rhine Canal]] – central [[Netherlands]]
* [[Scheldt-Rhine Canal]] – southwest [[Netherlands]]
* [[Canal of Drusus]]
==See also==
* [[Mainz (1929 ship)]]
* [[Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine]]
* [[EV15 The Rhine Cycle Route]]
* [[Köln-Düsseldorfer]]
* [[Piz Lunghin]] (triple watershed: Po–Rhine–Danube)
* [[Witenwasserenstock]] (triple watershed: Rhone–Rhine–Po)
* [[List of old waterbodies of the Rhine]]
==Notes and references==
===Notes===
{{notefoot}}
===References===
{{reflist|30em}}
===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book |title=Palaeogeographic Development of the Rhine-Meuse Delta, the Netherlands |last1=Berendsen |first1=H. J. A. |last2=Stouthamer |first2=E. |year=2001 |publisher=Koninklijke Van Gorcum |location=Assen |isbn=978-90-232-3695-5 |oclc=48632545}}
*{{cite book |title=The Conquest of Nature: Water, Landscape, and the Making of Modern Germany |last=Blackbourn |first=D. |year=2006 |edition=1st American |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |location=New York |isbn=978-0-393-06212-0 |oclc=63244666 |ol=7452134M |url=https://archive.org/details/conquestofnature00davi/mode/2up |url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book |last1=Cioc |first1=M. |title=The Rhine: An Eco-Biography, 1815–2000 |date=2002 |publisher=University of Washington Press |location=Seattle |isbn=978-0-295-98254-0 |oclc=50041291 |jstor=j.ctvcwndcf}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Cohen |first1=K. M. |last2=Stouthamer |first2=E. |last3=Berendsen |first3=H. J. A. |date=February 2002 |title=Fluvial Deposits as a Record for Late Quaternary Neotectonic Activity in the Rhine-Meuse Delta, the Netherlands |journal=Netherlands Journal of Geosciences |volume=81 |issue=3–4 |pages=389–405 |issn=0016-7746 |doi=10.1017/S0016774600022678 |bibcode=2002NJGeo..81..389C |doi-access=free}}
*{{Cite EB1911 |wstitle= Rhine |volume = 23 |last1= Coolidge |first1= William Augustus Brevoort |author-link1= W. A. B. Coolidge |last2= Muirhead |first2= James Fullarton |author-link2= James Fullarton Muirhead |last3= Ashworth |first3= Philip Arthur |author-link3= Philip Arthur Ashworth |pages=240-242}}
*{{cite book |title=Rhine Case Study |last1= Frijters |first1=I. D.|last2=Leentvaar |first2=J. |year=2003 |publisher=UNESCO International Hydrological Programme |id=SC/2003/WS/54 |location=Paris |url= http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001333/133303e.pdf |series=Technical Documents in Hydrology, PCCP series |volume= 17|oclc=55974122}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Gouw |first1=M. J. P. |last2=Erkens |first2=G. |date=March 2007 |title=Architecture of the Holocene Rhine-Meuse delta (the Netherlands) – A result of changing external controls |journal=Netherlands Journal of Geosciences |volume=86 |issue=1 |pages=23–54 |issn=0016-7746 |doi=10.1017/S0016774600021302 |bibcode=2007NJGeo..86...23G |doi-access=free}}
*{{cite journal |last1= Hoffmann |first1=T. |last2=Erkens |first2=G. |last3=Cohen |first3=K. |last4=Houben |first4=P. |last5=Seidel |first5=J. |last6=Dikau |first6=R. |year=2007 |title= Holocene Floodplain Sediment Storage and Hillslope Erosion Within the Rhine Catchment |journal=The Holocene |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=105–118 |doi=10.1177/0959683607073287 |bibcode=2007Holoc..17..105H |s2cid=128500289}}
*{{cite journal |last1=Ménot |first1=G. |last2=Bard |first2=E. |last3=Rostek |first3=F. |last4=Weijers |first4=J. W. H. |last5=Hopmans |first5=E. C. |last6=Schouten |first6=S. |last7=Sinninghe Damsté |first7=J. S. |date=15 September 2006 |title=Early Reactivation of European Rivers During the Last Deglaciation |journal=Science |pmid=16973877 |volume= 313 |issue=5793 |pages=1623–1625 |doi=10.1126/science.1130511 |bibcode=2006Sci...313.1623M |hdl=1874/22529 |s2cid=45157193 |hdl-access=free}}
*{{cite book |last1=Schädler |first1=B. |last2=Weingartner |first2=R. |title=Hydrological Atlas of Switzerland |date=2002 |chapter-url=https://hydrologicalatlas.ch/downloads/01/content/Tafel_63.pdf |chapter=Plate 6.3: Components of the Natural Water Balance 1961–1990}}
{{refend}}
==External links==
* [http://www.french-waterways.com/waterways/north-east/river-rhine/ Rhine] with maps and details of navigation through the French section; places, ports and moorings, by the author of ''Inland Waterways of France'', Imray
* [http://www.french-waterways.com/waterways/canals-rivers-france/ Navigation details for 80 French rivers and canals] (French waterways website section)
*[https://merhav.nli.org.il/primo-explore/search?query=any,contains,river%20map&tab=default_tab&search_scope=Local&sortby=lso01&vid=NLI&mfacet=rtype,include,Maps,1&mfacet=topic,include,Rhine%20River,1&mfacet=tlevel,include,online_resources,2&lang=en_US&offset=0&came_from=sort Old maps of the Rhine], from the Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The [[National Library of Israel]]
{{Rhine Tributaries|state=autocollapse}}
{{Lake Constance}}
{{Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta|state=autocollapse}}
{{Rivers of Germany}}
{{Authority control}}
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