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{{Short description|Failed colony in North America (1584–1590)}}
{{Distinguish|text=the inland modern city of [[Roanoke, Virginia]]}}
{{Redirect|Lost Colony}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2016}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox former subdivision
|_noautocat = no
|native_name = Roanoke Colony
|common_name =
|image = A popular history of the United States - from the first discovery of the western hemisphere by the Northmen, to the end of the first century of the union of the states; preceded by a sketch of the (14781233224).jpg
|image_caption = 19th-century illustration depicting the discovery of the abandoned colony, 1590
|image_map = {{Location map |North Carolina |relief=yes |lat_deg=35.9369 |lon_deg=-75.7089 |caption = |alt=Location of Roanoke Colony within present-day North Carolina}}
|image_map_caption = Location of Roanoke Colony within what is now North Carolina
|image_flag= <!--English Red Ensign 1620.svg-->
|subdivision = Colony
|nation = [[Kingdom of England|England]]
|coordinates = {{Coord|35|56|13|N|75|42|32|W|type:adm2nd_region:US-NC|display=inline,title}}
|government_type =
|title_leader = Governor
|leader1 = [[Ralph Lane]]
|year_leader1 = 1585–1586
|leader2 = [[John White (colonist and artist)|John White]]
|year_leader2 = 1587
|year_start = 1585
|year_end = 1590
|event1 = Evacuated
|date_event1 = 1586
|event2 = Re-established
|date_event2 = 1587
|event_end = Found abandoned
|era = [[Elizabethan era]]
|stat_year1 = 1585
|stat_pop1 = Approx. 108{{efn|name="population"|The precise number of colonists is disputed. See [[List of colonists at Roanoke]].}}
|stat_year2 = 1587
|stat_pop2 = Approx. 112–121{{efn|name="population"}}
|today = [[Dare County, North Carolina]], US
}}
The '''Roanoke Colony''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|oʊ|ə|n|oʊ|k}} {{respell|ROH|ə|nohk}}) was an attempt by Sir [[Walter Raleigh]] to found the first permanent English settlement in North America. The colony was founded in 1585, but when it was visited by a ship in 1590, the colonists had inexplicably disappeared. It has come to be known as the '''Lost Colony''', and the fate of the 112 to 121 colonists remains unknown.
Roanoke Colony was founded by the governor [[Ralph Lane]] in 1585 on [[Roanoke Island]] in present-day [[Dare County, North Carolina]].{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=45, 54–59}} Lane's colony was troubled by a lack of supplies and poor relations with some of the local [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribes. A resupply mission by Sir [[Richard Grenville]] was delayed, so Lane abandoned the colony and returned to England with Sir [[Francis Drake]] in 1586. Grenville arrived two weeks later and also returned home, leaving behind a small detachment to protect Raleigh's claim.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=70–77}}
A second expedition led by [[John White (colonist and artist)|John White]] landed on the island in 1587 and set up another settlement. Sir Walter Raleigh had sent him to establish the "Cittie of Raleigh" in [[Chesapeake Bay]]. That attempt became known as the Lost Colony due to the unexplained disappearance of its population.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp={{mvar|xx}}, 89, 276}}
During a stop to check on Grenville's men, the pilot of the flagship, [[Simon Fernandes]], forced White and his colonists to remain on Roanoke.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=81–82, 89}} White returned to England with Fernandes, intending to bring more supplies in 1588.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=93–94}} The [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|Anglo-Spanish War]] delayed his return to Roanoke until 1590,{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=94, 97}} and he found the settlement fortified but abandoned. The cryptic word "CROATOAN" was found carved into the [[palisade]], which White interpreted to mean that the colonists had relocated to [[Hatteras Island|Croatoan Island]]. Before he could follow this lead, rough seas and a lost anchor forced the mission to return to England.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=100–103}}
The fate of the approximately 112–121 colonists remains unknown. Speculation that they had assimilated with nearby Native American communities appears in writings as early as 1605.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=113–114}} Investigations by the [[Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown]] colonists produced reports that the Roanoke settlers had been massacred, and there were stories of people with European features being seen in Native American villages, but no conclusive evidence was found.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=116–125}}
Interest in the matter fell until 1834, when [[George Bancroft]] published his account in ''A History of the United States''. Bancroft's description of the colonists, particularly White's infant granddaughter [[Virginia Dare]], cast them as foundational figures in American culture and captured the public imagination.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=128–130}}
==Background==
[[File:Girolamo de Verrazzano's 1529 map of the East Coast of America.jpg|thumb|A 1529 map depicting "Verazzano's Sea" extending from the North Atlantic to the Outer Banks]]
The [[Outer Banks]] were explored in 1524 by [[Giovanni da Verrazzano]], who mistook [[Pamlico Sound]] for the Pacific Ocean, and concluded that the barrier islands were an [[isthmus]]. Recognizing this as a potential shortcut to [[Ming China|China]], he presented his findings to King [[Francis I of France]] and King [[Henry VIII]] of England, neither of whom pursued the matter.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=17–19}}
In 1578, Queen Elizabeth I granted a charter to Sir [[Humphrey Gilbert]] to explore and colonize territories "unclaimed by Christian kingdoms".{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=27–28}} Gilbert had helped to crush the first of the [[Desmond Rebellions]] in [[Munster|Ireland's Munster]] province in the early 1570s. The terms of the charter granted by the Queen were vague, although Gilbert understood it to give him rights to all territory in the [[New World]] north of [[Spanish Florida]].{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 5}} Led by Gilbert, the English briefly claimed [[St. John's, Newfoundland]], in 1583 as the first English territory in North America at the royal prerogative of Queen [[Elizabeth I]], but Gilbert was lost at sea on his return journey to England.
Following Gilbert's death in 1583,{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=30}} Queen Elizabeth divided the charter between his brother Adrian Gilbert, and his half-brother Sir [[Walter Raleigh]]. Adrian's charter gave him the [[Land patent|patent]] on [[Newfoundland]] and all points north, where geographers expected to eventually find a long-sought [[Northwest Passage]] to Asia. Raleigh was awarded the lands to the south, though much of it was already claimed by [[Spanish Empire|Spain]].{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=33}} [[Richard Hakluyt]], however, had by this time taken notice of Verazzano's "isthmus" – located within Raleigh's claim – and was campaigning for England to capitalize on the opportunity.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=31–33}}
Raleigh's charter, issued on March 25, 1584, specified that he needed to establish a colony by 1591, or lose his right to colonization.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 9}} He was to "discover, search, find out, and view such remote heathen and barbarous Lands, Countries, and territories ... to have, hold, occupy, and enjoy".<ref name="Elizabeth 1584">{{cite book |author=Elizabeth I |author-link=Elizabeth I of England |chapter=The letters patents, granted by the Queenes Majestie to M. Walter Ralegh now Knight, for the discouering and planting of new lands and Countries, to continue the space of 6. yeeres and no more. |editor-last1=Hakluyt |editor-first1=Richard |editor-link1=Richard Hakluyt |editor-last2=Goldsmid |editor-first2=Edmund |location=Edinburgh |publisher=E. & G. Goldsmid |publication-date=1889 |year=1600 |title=The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, And Discoveries of the English Nation |volume=XIII: America. Part II. |pages=276–282 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LmYjJ4CVhkwC&pg=PA276 |access-date=September 8, 2019 |archive-date=April 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417064613/https://books.google.com/books?id=LmYjJ4CVhkwC&pg=PA276 |url-status=live }}</ref> It was expected that Raleigh would establish a base from which to send [[privateer]]s on raids against the [[Spanish treasure fleet|treasure fleets of Spain]].{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|p= 12}}
Despite the broad powers granted to Raleigh, he was forbidden to leave the queen's side. Instead of personally leading voyages to the Americas, he delegated the missions to his associates and oversaw operations from London.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=30, 34}}
==Amadas–Barlowe expedition==
{{Anchor|Amadas-Barlowe expedition}} <!-- Former long-standing title -->
[[File:The Englishmen's arrival in Virginia (1590).jpg|thumb|''The arrival of the Englishmen in Virginia'' (1590). Engraving by [[Theodor De Bry]], from a drawing by John White.]]
Raleigh quickly arranged an expedition to explore his claim. It departed England on April 27, 1584.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|p= 14}} The fleet consisted of two [[barque]]s; [[Philip Amadas]] was captain of the larger vessel, with [[Simon Fernandes]] as pilot, while [[Arthur Barlowe]] was in command of the other. There are indications that [[Thomas Harriot]] and John White may have participated in the voyage, but no records survive which directly confirm their involvement.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 20–23}}
The expedition employed a standard route for transatlantic voyages, sailing south to catch [[trade winds]], which carried them westward to the [[West Indies]], where they collected fresh water. The two ships then sailed north until July 4, when they sighted land at what is now called [[Cape Fear (headland)|Cape Fear]]. The fleet made landfall on July 13 at an inlet north of [[Hatteras Island|Hatorask Island]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.carolinadesigns.com/obx-guide/history/portferdinando/|title=Port Ferdinando on the Outer Banks &#124; OBX History|first=Mary|last=Davies|date=March 24, 2022|website=OBX Travel Guide by Carolina Designs}}</ref> which was named "Port Ferdinando" after Fernandes, who discovered it.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|p= 14}}
The [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] in the region had likely encountered, or at least observed, Europeans from previous expeditions. The [[Secotan]], who controlled [[Roanoke Island]] and the mainland between Albemarle Sound and the Pamlico River, soon made contact with the English and established friendly relations. The Secotan chieftain, [[Wingina]], had recently been injured in a war with the [[Pamlico]], so his brother Granganimeo represented the tribe in his place.{{Sfn|Horn|2010|pp= 44–55}}
Upon their return to England in the autumn of 1584, Amadas and Barlowe spoke highly of the tribes' hospitality and the strategic location of Roanoke. They brought back two natives: [[Wanchese (Native American leader)|Wanchese]], a Secotan, and [[Manteo (Croatan)|Manteo]], a [[Croatan]] whose mother was the chieftain of [[Hatteras Island|Croatoan Island]].{{Sfn|Horn|2010|p= 56}} The expedition's reports described the region as a pleasant and bountiful land, alluding to the [[Golden Age]] and the [[Garden of Eden]], although these accounts may have been embellished by Raleigh.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 29–38}}
Queen Elizabeth was impressed with the results of Raleigh's expedition. In 1585, during a ceremony to [[knight]] Raleigh, she proclaimed the land granted to him "[[Colony of Virginia|Virginia]]" and proclaimed him "Knight Lord and Governor of Virginia". Sir Walter Raleigh proceeded to seek investors to fund a colony.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=45}}
==Lane colony==
{{See also|List of colonists at Roanoke}}
[[File:WP Richard Grenville.jpg|thumb|Sir [[Richard Grenville]]]]
For the first colony in Virginia, Raleigh planned a largely military operation focused on the exploration and evaluation of natural resources. The intended number of colonists was 69, but approximately 600 men were sent in the voyage, with about half intended to remain at the colony, to be followed by a second wave later. [[Ralph Lane]] was appointed governor of the colony, and Philip Amadas would serve as admiral, although the fleet commander Sir Richard Grenville led the overall mission.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 53–56}} Civilian attendants included  [[Joachim Gans]], metallurgist, [[Thomas Harriot]], a scientist, and [[John White (colonist and artist)|John White]], an artist. Manteo and Wanchese, returning home from their visit to England, were also passengers on the voyage.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=45–49}}
===Voyage===
The fleet consisted of seven ships: The [[galleass]] ''Tiger'' (Grenville's flagship, with Fernandes as pilot), the [[flyboat]] ''Roebuck'' (captained by John Clarke), ''Red Lion'' (under the command of George Raymond), ''Elizabeth'' (captained by [[Thomas Cavendish]]), ''Dorothy'' (Raleigh's personal ship, perhaps captained by Arthur Barlowe) and two small [[Pinnace (ship's boat)|pinnace]]s.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 55–56}}
[[File:Plymouth 1540.png|thumb| Plymouth, [[Devon]], was the burgeoning home port of Drake, Gilbert, Grenville, and Raleigh]]
On April 9, 1585, the fleet departed [[Plymouth]], heading south through the [[Bay of Biscay]]. A severe storm off the coast of Portugal separated ''Tiger'' from the rest of the fleet and sank one of the pinnaces. Fortunately, Fernandes had a plan for such an occurrence, wherein the ships would meet up at Mosquetal,{{efn|The English called this place "Bay of Muskito" (Mosquito Bay) while the Spanish called it "Mosquetal".{{Sfn|Quinn|1955|pp= 181, 740}} the precise location of which is uncertain. [[David Beers Quinn]] identified Mosquetal as Tallaboa Bay in 1955, but he later concurred with [[Samuel Eliot Morison]]'s 1971 conclusion that the name referred to Guayanilla Bay,{{Sfn|Morison|1971|pp= 633–635, 655}}{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 57, 430–31}}}} on the south coast of [[Puerto Rico]]. Proceeding alone, ''Tiger'' made good speed for the [[Caribbean]], arriving at the rendezvous point on May 11, ahead of the other ships.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 57}}
[[File:Mosquetal fort 23 May 1585.jpg|thumb|Ralph Lane's fort at Mosquetal]]
While awaiting the fleet, Grenville established a base camp, where his crew could rest and defend themselves from Spanish forces. Lane's men used the opportunity as practice for building the fortifications that would be needed at the new colony. The crew also set about replacing the lost pinnace, forging nails and sawing local lumber to construct a new ship.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 57}} ''Elizabeth'' arrived on May&nbsp;19, shortly after the completion of the fort and pinnace.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 58}}{{Sfn|Milton|2001|p= 91}}
The remainder of the fleet never arrived at Mosquetal. At least one of the ships encountered difficulties near Jamaica and ran out of supplies, causing its captain to send twenty of his crew ashore. Eventually ''Roebuck'', ''Red Lion'', and ''Dorothy'' continued to the [[Outer Banks]], arriving by mid-June. ''Red Lion'' left about thirty men on Croatoan Island and departed for privateering in Newfoundland. In the meantime, Grenville established contact with local Spanish authorities, in the hopes of obtaining fresh provisions. When the Spanish failed to deliver the promised supplies, Grenville suspected they would soon attack, so he and his ships abandoned the temporary fort.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 60, 64}}
[[File:Cabo Rojo fort 26 May 1585.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Collecting salt in Salinas Bay]]
Grenville captured two Spanish ships in the [[Mona Passage]], adding them to his fleet. Lane took one of these ships to [[Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico|Salinas Bay]], where he captured salt mounds collected by the Spanish. Lane again built fortifications to protect his men as they brought the salt aboard. Grenville's ships then sailed to [[La Isabela]], where the Spanish set aside hostilities to trade with the well-armed English fleet. On June&nbsp;7, Grenville left [[Hispaniola]] to continue to the Outer Banks.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 60–63}}
The fleet sailed through an inlet at Wococon Island (near present-day [[Ocracoke Inlet]]) on June 26. ''Tiger'' struck a [[shoal]], ruining most of the food supplies and nearly destroying the ship.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 63}} There are indications that Grenville's fleet was supposed to spend the winter with the new colony, perhaps to immediately begin using it as a privateering base. The wreck of ''Tiger'', however, made that impossible. The remaining provisions could not support a settlement as large as had been planned. Moreover, the shallow inlets of the Outer Banks made the region unsuitable as a base for large ships. The colony's top priority would now be to locate a better harbour.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|p= 20}}
After repairs, ''Tiger'' continued with the rest of the fleet to Port Ferdinando, where they reunited with ''Roebuck'' and ''Dorothy''. The men left behind by ''Red Lion'' were presumably also located during this time.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 63–64}} On August&nbsp;5, John Arundell took command of one of the faster vessels and set sail for England, to report the expedition's safe arrival.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 75}}
===Establishment of the colony===
[[File:Burning of Aquascogoc 1585.jpg|thumb|The 1585 assault on [[Aquascogoc]] village]]
The loss of provisions from the ''Tiger'' meant that the colony would support far fewer settlers than originally planned. Grenville decided that only about 100 men would stay with Lane, which would be enough to fulfill the colony's objectives until another fleet, scheduled to leave England in June&nbsp;1585, could deliver a second wave of colonists and supplies.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 64–67}} However, Grenville could not know that this expedition had been redirected to Newfoundland, to alert fishing fleets that the Spanish had begun seizing English commercial vessels in retaliation for attacks by English privateers.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 85}} Until a resupply mission could be arranged, Lane's colony would be heavily dependent on the generosity of the natives.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|p= 23}}
While the ''Tiger'' was under repair, Grenville organized an expedition to explore Pamlico Sound and the Secotan villages of [[Aquascogoc]], [[Pamlico]], and Secotan. His party made contact with the locals, presenting Harriot and White with an opportunity to extensively study Native American society.{{Sfn|Milton|2001|pp= 102–110}} Although much of their research did not survive the 1586 evacuation of the colony, Harriot's extensive survey of Virginia's inhabitants and natural resources was published in 1588, with engravings of White's illustrations included in the 1590 edition.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 157–158}}<ref name="Harriot">{{cite book |last=Harriot |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Harriot |title=A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia, of the commodities and of the nature and manners of the naturall inhabitants. Discouered by the English colony there seated by Sir Richard Greinuile Knight in the yeere 1585. Which Remained Vnder the gouernement of twelue monethes, at the speciall charge and direction of the Honourable Sir Walter Raleigh Knight lord Warden of the stanneries Who therein hath beene fauoured and authorized by her Maiestie and her letters patents. |location=Frankfurt |publisher=Johannes Wechel |year=1590 |url=https://archive.org/details/briefetruereport00harr/ |access-date=September 22, 2019}}</ref>
Following this initial exploration, a silver cup was reported missing. Believing the item stolen, Grenville sent Amadas to lead a detachment back to Aquascogoc to demand the return of the missing property. When the villagers did not produce the cup, the English decided that severe retribution was necessary in order to avoid the appearance of weakness. Amadas and his men burnt down the entire town and its crops, sending the natives fleeing.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|p= 72}}{{Sfn|Anon.|1600|pp= 298–299}}
[[File:Fort Raleigh (artist's reconstruction).jpg|thumb|An artist's rendering of [[Ralph Lane]]'s Roanoke fort; ''author unknown, 1962'']]
Manteo arranged a meeting for Grenville and Lane with Granganimeo, to provide land for the English settlement on Roanoke Island. Both sides agreed that the island was strategically located for access to the ocean and to avoid detection from Spanish patrols. Lane began construction of a fort on the north side of the island.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=58–59}} There are no surviving renderings of the Roanoke fort, but it was likely similar in structure to the one at Mosquetal.{{Sfn|Harrington|1962|p= 27}}
Grenville set sail for England aboard the ''Tiger'' on August 25, 1585. Days later, in [[Action off Bermuda (1585)|Bermuda]], Grenville raided a large Spanish [[galleon]], the ''Santa Maria de San Vicente'', which had become separated from the rest of its fleet.{{Sfn|Gabriel-Powell|2016|pp= 29–34}} The merchant ship, which Grenville took back to England as a prize, was loaded with enough treasure to make the entire Roanoke expedition profitable, spurring excitement in Queen Elizabeth's court about Raleigh's colonisation efforts.{{Sfn|Horn|2010|pp= 84–86}}
The ''Roebuck'' left Roanoke on September 8, 1585, leaving behind one of the pinnaces under the command of Amadas.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 82, 92}} Records indicate that 107&nbsp;men remained with Lane at the colony. However, historians disagree as to whether White returned to England with Grenville, or spent the winter at Roanoke despite his absence from the list of colonists.{{Sfn|Horn|2010|p= 259}}{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 82}}
===Exploration===
[[File:Roanoke map 1584.JPG|thumb|''La Virginea Pars'' map, by [[John White (colonist and artist)|John White]]]]
Many of the colonists had joined the mission expecting to discover sources of gold and silver. When no such sources were located, these men became dispirited and decided the entire operation was a waste of their time. The English also researched where the local Native Americans obtained their copper, but ultimately never tracked the metal to its origin.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 93–95}} The colonists spent the autumn of 1585 acquiring corn from the neighboring villages, to augment their limited supplies. The colony apparently obtained enough corn (along with venison, fish, and oysters) to sustain them through the winter.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 91}} Little information survives, however, about what transpired at the colony between September 1585 and March 1586, making a full assessment of the winter impossible.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 99}} The colonists most likely exhausted their English provisions and American corn by October, and the resulting monotony of their remaining food sources no doubt contributed to the men's low morale.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 104, 108}}
Amadas spent the winter exploring [[Chesapeake Bay]], traveling as far as [[Cape Henry]] and the [[James River]]. While there his party made contact with the [[Chesapeake people|Chesapeake]] villages of Chesepioc and [[Skicóak]]. The Secotans had described Skicóak as the largest city in the region, possibly leading the English to expect something like the wealthy [[Inca Empire|Inca]] and [[Aztecs|Aztec]] kingdoms encountered by the Spanish. Amadas instead found a more modest settlement, although he was impressed with the area's climate and [[soil quality]].{{Sfn|Horn|2010|pp= 87–89}} Harriot and Gans explored the Virginia territory, meeting Native American tribes and taking stock of natural resources. During his travels, Harriot and his assistants collected data that would eventually be used to produce White's ''[[La Virginea Pars]]'' map.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=63–64}}
Although 16th-century science could not explain the phenomenon, Harriot noticed that each town the colonists visited quickly suffered a deadly epidemic, which may have been [[influenza]] or [[smallpox]]. Some of the Secotan suspected the disease was caused by supernatural forces unleashed by the English. When Wingina fell sick, his own people could not treat him, but he recovered after requesting prayers from the English. Impressed, Wingina asked the colonists to share this power with other stricken communities, which only hastened the spread of disease. The epidemic likely had a severe impact on the fall harvest, at a time when Lane's colony would be heavily dependent on its neighbors to supplement its limited food supply.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=64–65}}{{Sfn|Horn|2010|pp= 89–91}}
===Hostilities and food shortages===
[[File:A chiefe Herowan.jpg|thumb|Portrait of a [[weroance]], who may have been [[Wingina]]]]
By spring, relations between the Secotan and the colony were strained, most likely due to the colony's over-reliance on Secotan food. The death of Granganimeo, who had been a powerful advocate for the colony, apparently helped to turn Wingina against the English. Wingina changed his name to "Pemisapan" ("one who watches"), suggesting a newly cautious and vigilant policy, and established a new temporary tribal capital on Roanoke Island. The English did not initially recognize that these developments represented a threat to their interests.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 75–76}}
In March, Lane consulted Pemisapan about a plan to explore the mainland beyond Secotan territory. Pemisapan supported the plan and advised Lane that the [[Chowanoke]] leader Menatonon was meeting with his allies to plan an attack on the English, and that three thousand warriors had gathered at Choanoac. At the same time, Pemisapan sent word to Menatonon that the English would be coming, ensuring that both sides would expect hostilities. When Lane's well-armed party arrived at Choanoac, he found representatives of the Chowanoke, Mangoak, [[Weapemeoc Indians|Weapemeoc]], and Moratuc. Since this gathering was not planning an attack, Lane caught them by surprise. He easily captured Menatonon, who informed him that it was Pemisapan who had requested the council in the first place.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 76–77}}{{Sfn|Donegan|2013|p=293}}{{Sfn|Horn|2010|pp= 93–94}}
Menatonon quickly gained Lane's trust by offering information about lucrative opportunities in lands the English had not yet discovered. He described a rich and powerful king to the northeast (presumably the leader of the [[Powhatan]]), warning that Lane should bring a considerable force if he sought to make contact. Menatonon also corroborated rumors Lane had heard about a sea just beyond the head of the [[Roanoke River]], apparently confirming English hopes of finding access to the Pacific Ocean. The chief's son Skiko described a place to the west called "Chaunis Temoatan" rich in a valuable metal, which Lane thought could be copper or perhaps even gold.{{Sfn|Horn|2010|pp= 94–97}}
Based on this information, Lane envisioned a detailed plan in which his forces would divide into two groups – one traveling north up the Chowan River, the other along the Atlantic coast{{mdash}}to resettle at Chesapeake Bay. However, he decided to defer this mission until the colony received fresh supplies, which Grenville had promised would arrive by Easter.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 77–78}}{{Sfn|Lane|1586|p= 322}} In the meantime, Lane [[ransom]]ed Menatonon and had Skiko sent back to Roanoke as a hostage. He proceeded with forty men for about {{convert|100|miles}} up the Roanoke River in search of Chaunis Temotan, but they found only deserted villages and warriors lying in ambush.{{Sfn|Horn|2010|pp= 97–98}} Lane had expected the Moratuc to provide provisions for him along his route, but Pemisapan had sent word that the English were hostile and villagers should withdraw from the river with their food.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 78–79}}
Lane and his party returned to the colony shortly after Easter, half-starved and empty-handed. During their absence, rumors had spread that they had been killed, and Pemisapan had been preparing to withdraw the Secotan from Roanoke Island and leave the colony to starve. There was no sign of Grenville's resupply fleet, which had not yet even left England. According to Lane, Pemisapan was so surprised that Lane returned alive from the Roanoke River mission that he reconsidered his plans. Ensenore, an elder among Pemisapan's council, argued in favor of the English. Later, an envoy for Menatonon informed Lane that the Weapemeoc leader Okisko had pledged fealty to Queen Elizabeth and Sir Walter Raleigh. This shift in the balance of power in the region further deterred Pemisapan from following through on his plans against the colony. He instead ordered his people to sow crops and build [[fishing weir]]s for the settlers.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 80–82}}
The renewed accord between the English and the Secotan was short-lived. On April 20 Ensenore died, depriving the colony of its last advocate in Pemisapan's inner circle. Wanchese had risen to become a senior advisor, and his time among the English had convinced him that they were a threat. Pemisapan evacuated the Secotan from Roanoke, destroyed the fishing weirs, and ordered them not to sell food to the English. Left to their own devices, the English had no way to produce enough food to sustain the colony. Lane ordered his men to break up into small groups to forage and beg for food in the Outer Banks and the mainland.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|p= 82}}
Lane continued to keep Skiko as a hostage. Although Pemisapan met regularly with Skiko and believed him sympathetic to the anti-English cause, Skiko sought to honor his father's intention of maintaining relations with the colony. Skiko informed Lane that Pemisapan planned to organize a war council meeting on June 10 with various regional powers. With the copper the Secotan had gained from trading with the colony, Pemisapan was able to offer substantial inducements to other tribes to side with him in a final offensive against the English. Oksiko declined to get involved, although individual Weapemeocs were permitted to participate. The plan of attack was to ambush Lane and other key leaders as they slept at the colony, and then signal for a general attack on the rest. Based on this information, Lane sent disinformation to the Secotan indicating that an English fleet had arrived, to force Pemisapan's hand.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 83–84}}
Forced to accelerate his schedule by the possibility of English reinforcements, Pemisapan gathered as many allies as he could for a meeting on May 31 at Dasamongueponke. That evening, Lane attacked the warriors posted at Roanoke, hoping to prevent them from alerting the mainland the following morning. On June 1, Lane, his top officers, and twenty-five men visited Dasamongueponke under the pretense of discussing a Secotan attempt to free Skiko. Once they were admitted into the council, Lane gave the signal for his men to attack. Pemisapan was shot and fled into the woods, but Lane's men caught up to him and brought back his severed head.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 83–85}} The head was impaled outside the colony's fort.{{Sfn|Oberg|2008|p= 98}}
===Evacuation===
[[File:Boazio-Sir Francis Drakes West Indian Voyage.jpg|thumb|Map of Sir Francis Drake's 1585–86 voyage]]
In June, the colonists made contact with the fleet of Sir [[Francis Drake]], on his way back to England from successful campaigns in [[Battle of Santo Domingo (1586)|Santo Domingo]], [[Battle of Cartagena de Indias (1586)|Cartagena]], and [[Raid on St. Augustine|St. Augustine]].{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=70–71}} During these raids, Drake had acquired refugees, slaves, and hardware with the intent of delivering them to Raleigh's colony. Upon learning of the colony's misfortunes, Drake agreed to leave behind four months of supplies and one of his ships, the ''Francis''. However, a [[hurricane]] hit the Outer Banks, sweeping the ''Francis'' out to sea.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 134–137}}
After the storm, Lane persuaded his men to evacuate the colony, and Drake agreed to take them back to England. Manteo and an associate, Towaye, joined them. Three of Lane's colonists were left behind and never heard from again. Because the colony was abandoned, it is unclear what became of the slaves and refugees Drake had meant to place there. There is no record of them arriving in England with the fleet, and it is possible Drake left them on Roanoke with some of the goods he had previously set aside for Lane.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=74–75}} Drake's fleet, along with Lane's colonists, reached England in July&nbsp;1586.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=77}} Upon arrival, the colonists introduced [[tobacco]], [[maize]], and [[potato]]es to England.{{Sfn|Chandler|1909|p= 5}}
===Grenville's detachment===
A single supply ship, sent by Raleigh, arrived at Roanoke just days after Drake evacuated the colony. The crew could not find any trace of the colonists and left. Two weeks later, Grenville's relief fleet finally arrived with a year's worth of supplies and reinforcements of 400 men. Grenville conducted an extensive search and interrogated three natives, one of which finally related an account of the evacuation.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 140–145}} The fleet returned to England, leaving behind a small detachment of fifteen men both to maintain an English presence and to protect Raleigh's claim to Roanoke Island.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 150–151}}
According to the Croatan, this contingent was attacked by an alliance of mainland tribes shortly after Grenville's fleet left. Five of the English were away gathering oysters when two of the attackers, appearing unarmed, approached the encampment and asked to meet with two Englishmen peacefully. One of the Native Americans concealed a wooden sword, which he used to kill an Englishman. Another 28 attackers revealed themselves, but the other Englishman escaped to warn his unit. The natives attacked with flaming arrows, setting fire to the house where the English kept their food stores, and forcing the men to take up whatever arms were handy. A second Englishman was killed; the remaining nine retreated to the shore, and fled the island on their boat. They found their four compatriots returning from the creek, picked them up, and continued into Port Ferdinando. The thirteen survivors were never seen again.{{Sfn|Hakluyt|1889|pp= 364–365}}
==Lost colony==
{{See also|List of colonists at Roanoke}}
[[File:Our greater country; being a standard history of the United States from the discovery of the American continent to the present time (1901) (14784788945).jpg|thumb|Death of George Howe]]
Despite the desertion of the Lane colony, Raleigh was persuaded to make another attempt by Hakluyt, Harriot, and White.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=81}} However, Roanoke Island would no longer be safe for English settlers, following the hostilities between Lane's men and the Secotan, and the death of Wingina.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=90}} Hakluyt recommended Chesapeake Bay as the site for a new colony, in part because he believed the Pacific coast lay just beyond the explored areas of the Virginia territory. On January 7, 1587, Raleigh approved a corporate charter to found "the Cittie of Raleigh" with White as governor and twelve assistants.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=81–82, 202}} Approximately 115 people agreed to join the colony, including White's pregnant daughter Eleanor and her husband Ananias Dare. The colonists were largely middle-class Londoners, perhaps seeking to become [[landed gentry]].{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=84–85}} Manteo and Towaye, who had left the Lane colony with Drake's fleet, were also brought along.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=88}} This time, the party included women and children, but no organized military force.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=85}}
The expedition consisted of three ships: The flagship ''Lion'', captained by White with Fernandes as master and pilot, along with a flyboat (under the command of Edward Spicer) and a [[full-rigged pinnace]] (commanded by Edward Stafford). The fleet departed on May 8.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 268–269}}
On July 22, the flagship and pinnace anchored at Croatoan Island. White planned to take forty men aboard the pinnace to Roanoke, where he would consult with the fifteen men stationed there by Grenville, before continuing on to Chesapeake Bay. Once he boarded the pinnace however, a "gentleman" on the flagship representing Fernandes ordered the sailors to leave the colonists on Roanoke.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=89}}{{Sfn|Milton|2001|p=215}}{{Sfn|Fullam|2017|p= 25}}
The following morning, White's party located the site of Lane's colony. The fort had been dismantled, while the houses stood vacant and overgrown with melons. There was no sign that Grenville's men had ever been there except for human bones that White believed were the remains of one of them, killed by Native Americans.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=90}}{{Sfn|Hakluyt|1889|pp= 362–363}}
Following the arrival of the flyboat on July 25, all of the colonists disembarked.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=90}} Shortly thereafter, colonist George Howe was killed by a native while searching alone for crabs in Albemarle Sound.{{Sfn|Grizzard|Smith|2007|pp= 120–123}}
[[File:Baptism of Virginia Dare.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.15|Baptism of [[Virginia Dare]]]]
White dispatched Stafford to re-establish relations with the Croatan, with the help of Manteo. The Croatan described how a coalition of mainland tribes, led by Wanchese, had attacked Grenville's detachment.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=90–92}} The colonists attempted to negotiate a truce through the Croatan, but received no response.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=91}}{{Sfn|Grizzard|Smith|2007|pp=120–123}} On August 9, White led a pre-emptive strike on Dasamongueponke, but the enemy (fearing reprisal for the death of Howe) had withdrawn from the village, and the English accidentally attacked Croatan looters. Manteo again smoothed relations between the colonists and the Croatan.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=92}} For his service to the colony, Manteo was [[baptism|baptized]] and named "Lord of Roanoke and Dasamongueponke".{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=93}}
On August 18, 1587, Eleanor Dare gave birth to a daughter, christened "[[Virginia Dare|Virginia]]" in honor of being "the first Christian born in Virginia". Records indicate Margery Harvye gave birth shortly thereafter, although nothing else is known about her child.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=94}}
By the time the fleet was preparing to return to England, the colonists had decided to relocate {{convert|50|miles}} up Albemarle Sound.{{Sfn|Hakluyt|1889|p=360|ps=: "seeing they intended to remove 50&nbsp;miles further up into the maine presently"}} The colonists persuaded Governor White to return to England to explain the colony's desperate situation and ask for help.{{Sfn|Grizzard|Smith|2007|pp=120–123}} White reluctantly agreed, and departed with the fleet on August 27, 1587.{{Sfn|Hakluyt|1889|p= 369}}
===1588 relief mission===
[[File:Spanish Armada fireships.jpg|thumb|250px|Launch of English fireships against the Spanish Armada, 7 August 1588]]
After a difficult journey, White returned to England on November 5, 1587.{{Sfn|Hakluyt|1889|p= 371}} By this time reports of the [[Spanish Armada]] mobilizing for an attack had reached London, and Queen Elizabeth had prohibited any able ship from leaving England so that they might participate in the coming battle.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 119–121}}{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=94}}
During the winter, Grenville was granted a waiver to lead a fleet into the Caribbean to attack the Spanish, and White was permitted to accompany him in a resupply ship. The fleet was set to launch in March 1588, but unfavorable winds kept them in port until Grenville received new orders to stay and defend England. Two of the smaller ships in Grenville's fleet, the ''Brave'' and the ''Roe'', were deemed unsuitable for combat, and White was permitted to take them to Roanoke. The ships departed on April 22, but the captains of the ships attempted to capture several Spanish ships on the outward-bound voyage (in order to improve their profits).{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 302}}{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp=121–122}} On May 6 they were attacked by [[Kingdom of France|French]] mariners (or [[piracy|pirates]]) near Morocco. Nearly two dozen of the crew were killed, and the supplies bound for Roanoke were looted, leaving the ships to return to England.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=94–95}}
Following the defeat of the Spanish Armada in August, England maintained the ban on shipping in order to focus efforts on organizing a [[English Armada|Counter Armada]] to attack Spain in 1589. White would not gain permission to make another resupply attempt until 1590.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=97}}
===Spanish reconnaissance===
The Spanish Empire had been gathering intelligence on the Roanoke colonies since Grenville's capture of ''Santa Maria de San Vicente'' in 1585. They feared that the English had established a haven for piracy in North America, but were unable to locate such a base.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=60}} They had no cause to assume Lane's colony had been abandoned, or that White's would be placed in the same location.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=88}} Indeed, the Spanish greatly overestimated the success of the English in Virginia; rumors suggested the English had discovered a mountain made of diamonds and a route to the Pacific Ocean.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=95}}
Following a failed reconnaissance mission in 1587, [[Philip II of Spain]] ordered [[Vicente González (governor)|Vicente González]] to search Chesapeake Bay in 1588. González failed to find anything in Chesapeake, but on the way back he chanced to discover Port Ferdinando along the Outer Banks. The port appeared abandoned. González left without conducting a thorough investigation. Although the Spanish believed González had located the secret English base, the defeat of the Spanish Armada prevented Phillip from immediately ordering an attack upon it. In 1590, a plan was reportedly made to destroy the Roanoke colony and set up a Spanish colony in Chesapeake Bay, but this was merely disinformation designed to misdirect English intelligence.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=95–98}}
===1590 relief mission===
{{further|Watts' West Indies and Virginia expedition}}
[[File:Ruins of the English Settlement at Roanoke.jpg|thumb|John White at the ruins of the Roanoke colony, 1590]]
Eventually, Raleigh arranged passage for White on a privateering expedition organized by [[John Watts (merchant)|John Watts]]. The fleet of six ships would spend the summer of 1590 raiding Spanish outposts in the Caribbean, but the flagship ''Hopewell'' and the ''Moonlight'' would split off to take White to his colony.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=97}} At the same time, however, Raleigh was in the process of turning the venture over to new investors.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=98}}
''Hopewell'' and ''Moonlight'' anchored at Croatoan Island on August&nbsp;12, but there is no indication that White used the time to contact the Croatan for information. On the evening of August 15, while anchored at the north end of Croatoan Island, the crews sighted plumes of smoke on Roanoke Island; the following morning, they investigated another column of smoke on the southern end of Croatoan, but found nothing.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=98}} White's landing party spent the next two days attempting to cross Pamlico Sound with considerable difficulty and loss of life. On August&nbsp;17 they sighted a fire on the north end of Roanoke and rowed towards it, but they reached the island after nightfall and decided not to risk coming ashore. The men spent the night in their anchored boats, singing English songs in hopes that the colonists would hear.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp={{mvar|xvii–xix}} }}
White and the others made landfall on the morning of August&nbsp;18 (his granddaughter's third birthday). The party found fresh tracks in the sand, but were not contacted by anyone. They also discovered the letters "CRO" carved into a tree. Upon reaching the site of the colony, White noted the area had been fortified with a [[palisade]]. Near the entrance of the fencing, the word "CROATOAN" was carved in one of the posts.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp={{mvar|xix}} }} White was certain these two inscriptions meant that the colonists had peacefully relocated to Croatoan Island, since they had agreed in 1587 that the colonists would leave a "secret token" indicating their destination, or a [[cross pattée]] as a [[duress code]].{{Sfn|Hakluyt|1889|p= 384}}{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 126–127}}
Within the palisade, the search party found that houses had been dismantled, and anything that could be carried had been removed. Several large trunks (including three belonging to White, containing the belongings he left behind in 1587) had been dug up and looted. None of the colony's boats could be found along the shore.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=101}} The party returned to ''Hopewell'' that evening, and plans were made to return to Croatoan the following day. However, ''Hopewell''{{'}}s anchor cable snapped, leaving the ship with only one working cable and anchor. The search mission could not continue given the considerable risk of shipwreck. ''Moonlight'' set off for England, but the crew of ''Hopewell'' offered a compromise with White, in which they would spend winter in the Caribbean and return to the Outer Banks in the spring of 1591. This plan fell through, though, when ''Hopewell'' was blown off course, forcing them to stop for supplies in the [[Azores Islands|Azores]]. When the winds prevented landfall there, the ship was again forced to change course for England, arriving on October 24, 1590.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=102–103}}
==Investigations into Roanoke==
===1552–1602: Walter Raleigh===
[[File:Sir Walter Raleigh oval portrait by Nicholas Hilliard.jpg|thumb|[[Walter Raleigh|Sir Walter Raleigh]]]]
Although White failed to locate his colonists in 1590, his report suggested they had simply relocated and might yet be found alive. However, it served Raleigh's purposes to keep the matter in doubt; so long as the settlers could not be proven dead, he could legally maintain his claim on Virginia.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=111}} Nevertheless, a 1594 petition was made to declare Ananias Dare [[legal death|legally dead]] so that his son, John Dare, could inherit his estate. The petition was granted in 1597.{{Sfn|Powell|1957|pp= 225–226}}
During Raleigh's first transatlantic voyage in 1595, he claimed to be in search of his lost colonists, although he later admitted this was disinformation to cover [[Raleigh's El Dorado Expedition|his search for El Dorado]]. On the return voyage, he sailed past the Outer Banks, and later claimed that weather had prevented him from landing.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=111}}
Raleigh later sought to enforce his [[monopoly]] on Virginia – based on the potential survival of the Roanoke colonists – when the price of [[sassafras]] skyrocketed. He funded a 1602 mission to the Outer Banks, with the stated goal of resuming the search.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=112–113}} Led by Samuel Mace, this expedition differed from previous voyages in that Raleigh bought his own ship and guaranteed the sailors' wages so that they would not be distracted by privateering.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|p= 130}} However, the ship's itinerary and manifest indicate that Raleigh's top priority was harvesting sassafras far south of Croatoan Island. By the time Mace approached Hatteras, bad weather prevented them from lingering in the area.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=113}} In 1603, Raleigh was implicated in the [[Main Plot]] and arrested for treason against [[James VI and I|King James]], effectively ending his Virginia charter.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|pp= 147–148}}
===1603: Bartholomew Gilbert===
There was one final expedition in 1603 led by [[Bartholomew Gilbert]] with the intention of finding the Roanoke colonists. Their intended destination was Chesapeake Bay, but bad weather forced them to land in an unspecified location near there. The landing team, including Gilbert himself, was killed by a group of Native Americans for unknown reasons on July 29. The remaining crew were forced to return to England empty-handed.{{Sfn|Van Zandt|2008|p= 50}}
===1579–1639: John Smith===
[[File:Zúñiga Map by Ashe 1908.jpg|thumb|Reproduction of the Zúñiga Map]]
Following the establishment of the [[Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown]] settlement in 1607, [[John Smith (explorer)|John Smith]] was captured by the [[Powhatan]] and met with both their leader [[Powhatan (Native American leader)|Wahunsenacawh]] (often referred to as "Chief Powhatan") and his brother [[Opechancanough]]. They described to him a place called "Ocanahonan", where men wore European-style clothing; and "Anone", which featured walled houses. Later, after Smith returned to the colony, he made arrangements with Wowinchopunk, the king of the [[Paspahegh]], to investigate "Panawicke", another place reportedly inhabited by men in European dress. The colony produced a crude map of the region with labels for these villages. The map also featured a place called "Pakrakanick" with a note indicating, "Here remayneth 4 men clothed that came from Roonocok to Ocanahawan."{{Sfn|Fullam|2017|pp= 128–133}}
In the summer of 1608, Smith sent a letter about this information, along with the map, back to England. The original map is now lost, but a copy was obtained by Pedro de Zúñiga, the Spanish ambassador to England, who passed it on to [[Philip III of Spain]]. The copy, now commonly referred to as the "Zúñiga Map", was rediscovered in 1890.{{Sfn|Fullam|2017|pp= 129, 131}}
Smith planned to explore Pakrakanick, but a dispute with the Paspahegh ended the mission before it could begin. He also dispatched two search parties, possibly to look for the other villages reported to him, with instructions to find "the lost company of Sir Walter Rawley". Neither group could find any sign of the Roanoke colonists living in the area.{{Sfn|Fullam|2017|pp= 151, 154}}
By May 1609, word had reached England's Royal Council for Virginia that the 1587 colonists had been massacred by Wahunsenacawh.{{Sfn|Virginia Council|1609|p= 17}} The source of this allegation is unknown. Machumps, Wahunsenacawh's brother-in-law, is known to have provided information about Virginia, and he had recently arrived in England.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=121}} It has been speculated that the same voyage could have also delivered a letter from Smith, although no evidence for this exists.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|p= 365}}
Based on this intelligence, as well as Smith's earlier report, the Council drafted orders for the Jamestown colony to relocate. These orders recommended "Ohonahorn" (or "Oconahoen"), near the mouth of the [[Chowan River]], as a new base. Among the purported advantages of this location were proximity to "Riche Copper mines of Ritanoc" and "Peccarecamicke", where four of Raleigh's colonists were supposed to be held by a chieftain named "Gepanocon".{{Sfn|Virginia Council|1609|pp= 16–17}} These orders, along with the new acting governor, [[Thomas Gates (governor)|Thomas Gates]], were delayed due to the shipwreck of the ''[[Sea Venture]]'' at Bermuda. Gates arrived at Jamestown in May 1610, several months into the [[Starving Time]]. The crisis may have deterred the colonists from attempting the proposed relocation. An expedition was sent to the Chowan River, but there is no record of its findings.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=120–122}}
===1610–1612: William Strachey===
[[William Strachey]] arrived in Jamestown, along with Gates and Machumps, in May 1610. By 1612, he had returned to England, where he wrote ''The Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britannia'', an overview of the Virginia territory.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=120–122}} He described "Peccarecamek", "Ochanahoen", "Anoeg", and "Ritanoe" in a manner consistent with Smith's map and the Virginia Council's orders to Gates. However, Strachey introduced additional details about "the slaughter at Roanoak".{{Sfn|Strachey|1612|pp= 26, 48}}
Strachey suggested that the lost colonists had spent twenty years living peacefully with a tribe beyond Powhatan territory. Wahunsenacawh, he claimed, carried out the unprovoked attack at the recommendation of his priests, shortly before the arrival of the Jamestown colonists. Based on this account, seven English – four men, two boys, and one woman – survived the assault and fled up the Chowan River. They later came under the protection of a chieftain named "Eyanoco", for whom they beat copper at "Ritanoe".{{Sfn|Strachey|1612|pp= 26, 85–86}}
''The Historie of Travaile'' never directly identifies the tribe that supposedly hosted the Roanoke colonists. However, Strachey did describe an attack against the Chesepians, in which Wahunsenacawh's priests warned him that a nation would arise in Chesapeake Bay to threaten his dominion.{{Sfn|Strachey|1612|p= 101}} It has been inferred that the colonists had relocated to Chesapeake, and both groups were massacred in the same attack.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 367–368}}
Strachey believed that the Powhatan religion was inherently [[Theistic Satanism|Satanic]], and that the priests might literally be in communion with [[Satan]]. He advocated for England to facilitate the Powhatans' conversion to Christianity. To that end, he recommended a plan in which King James would show mercy to the Powhatan people for the massacre of the Roanoke colonists, but demand revenge upon the priests.{{Sfn|Strachey|1612|p= 83–86}} However, the London Company did not publish ''The Historie of Travaile'', which fell into obscurity until 1849.{{Sfn|Strachey|1612|pp= {{mvar|xx}} }} There is no indication that any actions were taken against Wahunsenacawh or his priests in retaliation for the alleged massacre.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=123}}
===1625: Samuel Purchas===
[[File:1622 massacre jamestown de Bry.jpg|thumb|[[Indian massacre of 1622|Powhatan attack]] on Jamestown]]
After the Powhatan [[Indian massacre of 1622|attacked Jamestown]] in 1622, there was a dramatic shift in English commentary on Native Americans, as writers increasingly questioned their humanity. The [[London Company]] sponsored propaganda arguing that the massacre had justified [[genocide|genocidal]] retaliation, in order to assure potential backers that their investment in the colony would be safe.{{Sfn|Cain|2001|pp= 453–454}}{{Sfn|Kupperman|1977|p= 265}}
In this context, [[Samuel Purchas]] wrote ''Virginia's Verger'' in 1625, asserting England's right to possess and exploit its North American claim. He argued that the natives, as a race, had forfeited their right to the land through bloodshed, citing the 1586 ambush of Grenville's garrison, an alleged attack on White's colonists, and the 1622 Jamestown massacre. Purchas offered no evidence for his claim about the 1587 colony except to state, "Powhatan confessed to Cap. Smith, that hee had beene at their slaughter, and had divers utensills of theirs to shew."{{Sfn|Purchas|1625|pp=228–229}}
It is possible Smith related the story of Wahunsenacawh's confession to Purchas, as they are known to have spoken together. Smith's own writings, however, never mention the confession, leaving Purchas' claim to stand alone in what historian Helen Rountree dismisses as "an anti-Indian [[polemic]]".{{Sfn|Rountree|1990|pp= 21–22}} Even if taken at face value, the alleged confession is not persuasive, as Wahunsenacawh might have invented the story in an attempt to intimidate Smith. The European artifacts allegedly offered as "proof" of a raid on the Roanoke colonists could just as easily have been obtained from other sources, such as [[Ajacán Mission|Ajacán]].{{Sfn|Parramore|2001|p= 71}}
===1701–1709: John Lawson===
Sea traffic through Roanoke Island fell into decline in the 17th century, owing to the dangerous waters of the Outer Banks.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=126}} In 1672, the inlet between Hatorask and Croatoan Islands closed, and the resulting landmass became known as [[Hatteras Island]].{{Sfn|Brooks|2014|p= 180}}
During [[John Lawson (explorer)|John Lawson]]'s 1701–1709 exploration of northern [[Province of Carolina|Carolina]], he visited Hatteras Island and encountered the [[Hatteras Indians|Hatteras]] people.{{Sfn|Brooks|2014|p= 171}} Although there is evidence of European activity in the Outer Banks throughout the 17th century, Lawson was the first historian to investigate the region since White left in 1590.{{Sfn|Brooks|2014|pp= 181–182}} Lawson was impressed with the influence of English culture on the Hatteras. They reported that several of their ancestors had been white, and some of them had gray eyes, supporting this claim. Lawson theorized that members of the 1587 colony had assimilated into this community after they lost hope of regaining contact with England.{{Sfn|Lawson|1709|p= 62}} While visiting Roanoke Island itself, Lawson reported finding the remains of a fort, as well as English coins, firearms, and a powder horn.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=138}}
==Scientific research==
Research into the disappearance of the 1587 colonists largely ended with Lawson's 1701 investigation. Renewed interest in the Lost Colony during the 19th century eventually led to a wide range of scholarly analyses.
===1800s–1950: Site preservation===
{{Main|Fort Raleigh National Historic Site}}
[[File:Fort Raleigh National Historic Site earthworks 2 - Sarah Stierch.jpg|thumb|Reconstructed earthwork at Fort Raleigh National Historic Site]]
The ruins that Lawson encountered in 1701 eventually became a tourist attraction. [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[James Monroe]] visited the site on April 7, 1819. During the 1860s, visitors described the deteriorated "fort" as little more than an earthwork in the shape of a small [[bastion]], and reported holes dug nearby in search of valuable relics. Production of the 1921 [[silent film]] ''The Lost Colony'' and road development further damaged the site. In the 1930s, [[J. C. Harrington]] advocated for the restoration and preservation of the earthwork.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=135–141}} The [[National Park Service]] began administration of the area in 1941, designating it [[Fort Raleigh National Historic Site]]. In 1950, the earthwork was reconstructed in an effort to restore its original size and shape.<ref name="foracommemoration">{{cite web |title=Commemorating Fort Raleigh |website=U.S. National Park Service |date=August 10, 2016 |url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/foracommemoration.htm |access-date=September 11, 2019 |archive-date=October 5, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191005032558/https://www.nps.gov/articles/foracommemoration.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
===1998: Climate research===
In 1998, a team led by [[climatology|climatologist]] David W. Stahle (of the [[University of Arkansas]]) and [[archaeologist]] Dennis B. Blanton (of the [[College of William and Mary]]) concluded that an extreme drought occurred in [[Tidewater (region)|Tidewater]] between 1587 and 1589. Their study [[Dendrochronology|measured growth rings]] from a network of [[Taxodium distichum|bald cypress]] trees, producing data ranging from 1185 to 1984. Specifically, 1587 was measured as the worst growing season in the entire 800-year period. The findings were considered consistent with the concerns the Croatan expressed about their food supply.<ref name="Stahle 1998">{{cite journal |last1=Stahle |first1=David W. |date=April 24, 1998 |title=The Lost Colony and Jamestown Droughts |journal=Science |volume=280 |issue=5363 |pages=564–567 |doi=10.1126/science.280.5363.564 |pmid=9554842 |jstor=2895280 |display-authors=1 |last2=Cleaveland |first2=MK |last3=Blanton |first3=DB |last4=Therrell |first4=MD |last5=Gay |first5=DA |bibcode=1998Sci...280..564S |s2cid=25480457 }}</ref>
===2005–2019: Genetic analysis===
Since 2005, computer scientist Roberta Estes has founded several organizations for [[DNA]] analysis and genealogical research. Her interest in the disappearance of the 1587 colony motivated various projects to establish a genetic link between the colonists and potential Native American descendants. Examining [[Autosome|autosomal DNA]] for this purpose is unreliable, as so little of the colonists' genetic material would remain after five or six generations. However, testing of [[Y chromosome]]s and [[mitochondrial DNA]] is more reliable over large spans of time. The main challenge of this work is to obtain a genetic point of comparison, either from the remains of a Lost Colonist or one of their descendants. While it is conceivable to sequence DNA from 430-year-old bones, there are as yet no bones from the Lost Colony to work with. And, as of 2019, the project had yet to identify any living descendant.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=311–314}}
==Archaeological research==
===1887–present: Archaeological evidence===
[[File:Fort Raleigh Archaelogical Dig 2009.jpg|thumb|Archaeological research dig at [[Fort Raleigh National Historic Site]] (2009)]]
Archaeological research on Roanoke Island only began when [[Talcott Williams]] discovered a Native American burial site in 1887. He returned in 1895 to excavate the fort but found nothing of significance. [[Ivor Noël Hume]] would later make several compelling finds in the 1990s, but none that could be positively linked to the 1587 colony, as opposed to the 1585 outpost.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=138–142}}
After [[Hurricane Emily (1993)|Hurricane Emily]] uncovered a number of Native American artifacts along Cape Creek in [[Buxton, North Carolina|Buxton]], [[North Carolina]], anthropologist [[David Sutton Phelps Jr.]] organized an excavation in 1995. Phelps and his team discovered a ring in 1998, which initially appeared to be a gold [[Seal (emblem)#Signet rings|signet ring]] bearing the [[heraldry]] of a Kendall family in the 16th century.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=184–189}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://digital.lib.ecu.edu/special/ead/findingaids/1061/ |title=Croatan Archaeological Site Collection, ca. early 17th Century: Manuscript Collection #1061 |website=Collection Guides at East Carolina University |publisher=East Carolina University Libraries |last=Phelps |first=David S. |author-link=David Sutton Phelps Jr. |date=February 10, 2006 |access-date=September 3, 2019 |archive-date=June 11, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080611175832/http://digital.lib.ecu.edu/special/ead/findingaids/1061/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The find was celebrated as a landmark discovery, but Phelps never published a paper on his findings, and neglected to have the ring properly tested. [[X-ray]] analysis in 2017 proved the ring was brass, not gold, and experts could not confirm the alleged connection to Kendall heraldry. The low value and relative anonymity of the ring make it more difficult to conclusively associate with any particular person from the Roanoke voyages, which in turn increases the likelihood that it could have been brought to the New World at a later time.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/mystery-roanoke-endures-yet-another-cruel-twist-180962837/ |title=The Mystery of Roanoke Endures Yet Another Cruel Twist |last=Lawler |first=Andrew |website=Smithsonian.com |date=April 7, 2017 |access-date=October 2, 2019 |archive-date=December 10, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210005612/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/mystery-roanoke-endures-yet-another-cruel-twist-180962837/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=199–205}}
A significant challenge for archaeologists seeking information about the 1587 colonists is that many common artifacts could plausibly originate from the 1585 colony, or from Native Americans who traded with other European settlements in the same era. [[Andrew Lawler]] suggests that an example of a conclusive find would be female remains (since the 1585 colony was exclusively male) buried according to Christian tradition ([[supine position|supine]], in an east–west orientation) which can be dated to before 1650 (by which point Europeans would have spread throughout the region).{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=182}} However, few human remains of any kind have been discovered at sites related to the Lost Colony.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=313}}
One possible explanation for the extreme deficiency in archaeological evidence is [[shoreline erosion]]. The northern shore of Roanoke Island, where the Lane and White colonies were located, lost 928 feet (283 m) between 1851 and 1970. Extrapolating from this trend back to the 1580s, it is likely that portions of the settlements are now underwater, along with any artifacts or signs of life.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dolan |first1=Robert |last2=Bosserman |first2=Kenton |title=Shoreline Erosion and the Lost Colony |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |date=September 1972 |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=424–426 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8306.1972.tb00875.x |jstor=562295}}</ref>
===2011–present; new archaeological sites===
In November 2011, researchers at the First Colony Foundation noticed two corrective patches on White's 1585 map ''La Virginea Pars''. At their request, the [[British Museum]] examined the original map with a [[light table]]. One of the patches, at the confluence of the Roanoke and Chowan rivers, was found to cover a symbol representing a fort at the head of Albemarle Sound. The faint outline of a fort, drawn in what might be invisible ink, was also discovered on the patch itself.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=163–170}}<ref name="British Museum">{{cite web |title=Museum number 1906,0509.1.3 – Transmitted light image of the northern patch in "La Virginea Pars" |website=British Museum |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details/collection_image_gallery.aspx?partid=1&assetid=1178208001&objectid=753203 |access-date=September 13, 2019 |archive-date=April 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417064543/https://media.britishmuseum.org/media/Repository/Documents/2014_11/4_17/71fb63c9_8100_4986_91a1_a3d9011d959c/mid_01178208_001.jpg |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="natgeo 2020">[https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/newfound-survivor-camp-may-explain-lost-colony-roanoke Newfound survivor camp may explain fate of the famed Lost Colony of Roanoke], By Andrew Lawler, November 5, 2020, National Geographic.</ref> One theory is that that White may have been trying to conceal the fort from the Spanish, who saw the colony as a threat. The Spanish had sent an expedition to defeat the colony, but could not find the settlers.<ref name="natgeo 2020"/>
As the symbol is not to scale, it covers an area on the map representing thousands of acres in [[Bertie County, North Carolina]]. However, the location is presumed to be in or near the 16th-century [[Weapemeoc]] village of Mettaquem. In 2012, when a team prepared to excavate where the symbol indicated, archaeologist Nicholas Luccketti suggested they name the location "Site X", as in "[[wikt:X marks the spot|X marks the spot]]."{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=176–177}} In 2015 a team excavated the site, located near a Native American village called Mettaquem.<ref name="natgeo 2020"/>
In an October 2017 statement, the First Colony Foundation reported finding fragments of [[Tudor period|Tudor]] pottery and weapons at Site X, and concluded that these indicate a small group of colonists residing peacefully in the area.<ref name="FCF November 2017">{{cite web |title=Roanoke Symposium Success |date=November 27, 2017 |url=https://www.firstcolonyfoundation.org/news/roanoke-symposium-success/ |access-date=September 13, 2019 |website=First Colony Foundation |archive-date=August 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808213105/https://www.firstcolonyfoundation.org/news/roanoke-symposium-success/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The challenge for this research is to convincingly rule out the possibility that such finds were brought to the area by the 1585 Lane colony, or the trading post established by [[Nathaniel Batts]] in the 1650s.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=174–182}} In 2019, the Foundation announced plans to expand the research into land that has been donated to North Carolina as Salmon Creek State Natural Area.<ref name="Salmon Creek Property">{{cite web |url=https://www.ncparks.gov/newsroom/media-releases/salmon-creek-property-transferred-state-new-natural-area |title=Salmon Creek Property Transferred to State for New Natural Area |website=North Carolina State Parks |date=January 3, 2019 |last=Hall |first=Katie |access-date=September 13, 2019 |archive-date=July 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725093005/https://www.ncparks.gov/newsroom/media-releases/salmon-creek-property-transferred-state-new-natural-area |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="FCF June 2019">{{cite web |url=https://www.firstcolonyfoundation.org/news/bertie-county-archaeological-survey/ |title=Bertie County Archaeological Survey |website=First Colony Foundation |date=June 20, 2019 |access-date=September 13, 2019 |archive-date=April 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200411003815/https://www.firstcolonyfoundation.org/news/bertie-county-archaeological-survey/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 2020, new artifacts were found in North Carolina which researchers believe may be from a colony of survivors of the Lost Colony.  These were found at a site about fifty miles west of Roanoke Island. Analysis of the artifacts focused on determining whether they might be from the Lost Colony, since later settlers from other colonies such as Jamestown would have different items and different materials than the Lost Colony settlers, such as for example clay pipes, which were invented later.<ref name="natgeo 2020"/>  Another researcher found items at a site about fifty miles south of Roanoke Island.<ref name="natgeo 2020"/>
Another dig by Mark Horton, an archaeologist from the University of Bristol, found European artifacts at the site of a Native American village on Hatteras Island, including part of a sword and part of a gun. This may be conclusive proof that the settlers did indeed assimilate with local Native Americans.<ref name="natgeo 2020"/><ref name="kozak">[https://coastalreview.org/2016/05/14460/ Back to Square One With Lost Colony?] 05/19/2016 by Catherine Kozak, Coastal Review.</ref>
In 2020 a book by Scott Dawson was published entitled ''The Lost Colony and Hatteras Island'' describing his efforts along with Horton to find artifacts relating to the colony. He also wrote articles in publications, including an article in the magazine [[American Heritage (magazine)|American Heritage]], which described several  significant artifacts. these included several objects that seemed to be manufactured by Europeans, including an olive jar, glass and various manufactured items.<ref name="Dawson1">[https://www.americanheritage.com/have-we-found-lost-colony Have We Found the “Lost Colony”?] What happened to the first English colonists in North America, who supposedly disappeared without a trace? Our recent archaeological discoveries may have solved the riddle.by Scott Dawson, November 2020, American Heritage.</ref><ref>[https://www.outerbanksvoice.com/2020/06/19/the-lost-colony-wasnt-really-lost/ The Lost Colony wasn’t really lost], By Michelle Wagner, Outer Banks Voice on June 19, 2020.</ref>
==Hypotheses about the colony's disappearance==
<!--Redirect Anchor, do not alter - {{anchor|Hypotheses}} -->
{{blockquote|It's the "[[Area 51]]" of colonial history.|author=Adrian Masters (historian, University of Texas){{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=110}}}}
Without evidence of the Lost Colony's relocation or destruction, speculation about their fate has endured since the 1590s.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=110}} The matter has developed a reputation among academics for attracting obsession and [[sensationalism]] with little scholastic benefit.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=8, 263, 270–71, 321–24}}
Conjecture about the Lost Colonists typically begins with the known facts about the case. When White returned to the colony in 1590, there was no sign of battle or withdrawal under duress, although the site was fortified. There were no human remains or graves reported in the area, suggesting that everyone was alive when they left. The "CROATOAN" message is consistent with the agreement with White to indicate where to look for them, suggesting they expected White to look for them and wanted to be found.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=324–326}}
===Powhatan attack at Chesapeake Bay===
[[File:Powhatan john smith map.jpg|thumb|Chief Powhatan, detail of map published by John Smith (1612)]]
[[David Beers Quinn]] concluded that the 1587 colonists sought to relocate to their original destination – Chesapeake Bay – using the pinnace and other small boats to transport themselves and their belongings. A small group would have been stationed at Croatoan, to await White's return and direct him to the transplanted colony. Following White's failure to locate any of the colonists, the main body of the colonists would have quickly assimilated with the [[Chesapeake people|Chesepians]], while the lookouts on Croatoan would have blended into the Croatan tribe.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}
Quinn suggested that Samuel Mace's 1602 voyage might have ventured into Chesapeake Bay and kidnapped Powhatans to bring back to England. From there, these abductees would be able to communicate with Thomas Harriot, and might reveal that Europeans were living in the region. Quinn evidently believed circumstances such as these were necessary to explain optimism about the colonists' survival after 1603.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}
Although Strachey accused Wahunsenacawh of slaughtering the colonists and Chesepians in separate passages, Quinn decided that these events occurred in a single attack on an integrated community, in April&nbsp;1607. He supposed that Wahunsenacawh could have been seeking revenge for the speculative kidnappings by Mace. In Quinn's estimation, John Smith was the first to learn of the massacre, but for political considerations he quietly reported it directly to King James rather than revealing it in his published writings.{{Sfn|Quinn|1985|pp= 341–377}} Despite Quinn's reputation on the subject, his peers had reservations about his theory, which relies heavily on the accounts of Strachey and Purchas.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=132}}
===Integration with local tribes===
[[File:North carolina algonkin-dorf.jpg|thumb|Watercolor of a Secotan village, by John White]]
The possibility that the missing colonists could have assimilated into nearby Native American tribes has been suggested since at least 1605.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=113}} If this integration was successful, the assimilated colonists would gradually exhaust their European supplies (ammunition, clothing) and discard European culture (language, style of dress, agriculture) as Algonquian lifestyle became more convenient.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=328}} Colonial era Europeans observed that many people removed from European society by Native Americans for substantial periods of time – even if captured or enslaved – were reluctant to return; the reverse was seldom true. Therefore, it is reasonable to postulate that, if the colonists were assimilated, they or their descendants would not seek reintegration with subsequent English settlers.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=331}}
This leaves open the question of which tribe, or tribes, the colonists assimilated into. It is widely accepted that the Croatan were ancestors of the 18th-century Hatteras, although evidence of this is circumstantial.{{Sfn|Brooks|2014|p= 180}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dunbar |first=Gary S. |title=The Hatteras Indians of North Carolina |journal=Ethnohistory |volume=7 |number=4 |date=Autumn 1960 |pages=410–418 |publisher=Duke University Press |jstor=480877 |doi=10.2307/480877}}</ref> The present-day [[Hatteras Indians|Hatteras]] tribe identifies as descendants of both the Croatan and the Lost Colonists by way of the Hatteras.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=339–344}}
Some 17th-century maps use the word "Croatoan" to describe locations on the mainland, across Pamlico Sound from Roanoke and Hatteras. By 1700, these areas were associated with the Machapunga.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=334}} Oral traditions and legends about the migration of the Croatan through the mainland are prevalent in eastern North Carolina.{{Sfn|Kupperman|2007|p= 137}} For example, the "Legend of the [[Coharie]]" in [[Sampson County, North Carolina|Sampson County]] was transcribed by Ernest M. Bullard in 1950.{{Sfn|Fullam|2017|pp= 102–110}}
More famously, in the 1880s, state legislator Hamilton McMillan proposed that the Native American community in [[Robeson County]] (then considered [[free people of color]]) retained surnames and linguistic characteristics from the 1587 colonists.<ref name="McMillan 1888">{{cite book |last=McMillan |first=Hamilton |title=Sir Walter Raleigh's Lost Colony |quote=An historical sketch of the attempts of Sir Walter Raleigh to establish a colony in Virginia, with the traditions of an Indian tribe in North Carolina. Indicating the fate of the colony of Englishmen left on Roanoke Island in 1587. |year=1888 |publisher=Advance Presses |location=Wilson, North Carolina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DFUVAAAAYAAJ |access-date=September 10, 2019 |archive-date=April 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417064546/https://books.google.com/books?id=DFUVAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> His efforts convinced the North Carolina legislature to confer tribal recognition to the community in 1885, with the new designation of "Croatan". The tribe petitioned to be renamed in 1911, eventually settling on the name [[Lumbee]] in 1956.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=301–307}}
Other tribes purportedly linked to the Roanoke colonists include the [[Catawba people|Catawba]] and the [[Coree]].{{Sfn|Gabriel-Powell|2016|p= 128}} [[Samuel A'Court Ashe|S. A'C. Ashe]] was convinced that the colonists had relocated westward to the banks of the Chowan River in Bertie County, and [[Conway Whittle Sams]] claimed that after being attacked by Wanchese and Wahunsenacawh, they scattered to multiple locations: The Chowan River, and south to the Pamlico and Neuse Rivers.{{Sfn|Stick|1983|p= 233}}
Reports of encounters with pale-skinned, blond-haired people among various Native American tribes occur as early as 1607. Although this is frequently attributed to assimilated Lost Colonists, it may be more easily explained by dramatically higher rates of [[albinism]] in Native Americans than in people of European descent.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=116}} Dawson (2020)<ref>{{cite book |title=The Lost Colony and Hatteras Island |url=https://www.arcadiapublishing.com/Products/9781467144339 |date=June 2020 |isbn=978-1467144339 |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |access-date=5 September 2020 |archive-date=September 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904011832/https://www.arcadiapublishing.com/Products/9781467144339 |url-status=live }}</ref> proposed that the colonists merged with the Croatoan people; he claims, "They were never lost. It was made up. The mystery is over."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.pilotonline.com/news/vp-nw-not-lost-20200817-qgmblubzt5dyjm3jrcop25ssoq-story.html |title="The mystery is over": Researchers say they know what happened to 'Lost Colony' |last=Hampton |first=Jeff |newspaper=[[The Virginian-Pilot]] |date=August 17, 2020 |access-date=August 24, 2020 |archive-date=August 23, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823224818/https://www.pilotonline.com/news/vp-nw-not-lost-20200817-qgmblubzt5dyjm3jrcop25ssoq-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Yuhas |first1=Alan |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/01/us/Roanoke-lost-colony.html |title=Roanoke's 'Lost Colony' was never lost, new book says |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=September 2020 |access-date=5 September 2020 |archive-date=September 5, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200905233346/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/01/us/Roanoke-lost-colony.html |url-status=live }}</ref> However, this conclusion has been called into question. Alain Outlaw, an archaeologist and faculty member at [[Christopher Newport University]], called Dawson's conclusion as "storytelling, not evidence-based information", while archaeologist Nick Luccketti wrote "I have not seen any evidence at Croatoan of artifacts that indicate that Englishmen were living there." In addition, the actual text of Dawson's 2020 book ''The Lost Colony and Hatteras Island'' admitted that there was no "[[smoking gun]]" of evidence that the colonists had assimilated with the tribe. The book was also not subject to peer review, leaving the question open in spite of the sensationalist headlines that accompanied its publication.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://stlukesmuseum.org/edu-blog/mystery-of-the-lost-colony-solved-not-so-fast/ |title=Mystery of the Lost Colony Solved? Not So Fast! |last=Ericson |first=John |date=September 24, 2020 |publisher=[[St. Luke's Historic Church & Museum]] |access-date=20 July 2022 |archive-date=December 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206001844/https://stlukesmuseum.org/edu-blog/mystery-of-the-lost-colony-solved-not-so-fast/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
An archaeological dig by Mark Horton, an archaeologist from the University of Bristol, found European artifacts at the site of a Native American village on Hatteras Island, including part of a sword and part of a gun. This may be conclusive proof that the settlers did indeed assimilate with local Native Americans.<ref name="natgeo 2020"/>
===Attempt to return to England===
[[File:Building the Pinnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Construction of a pinnace to evacuate Charlesfort]]
The colonists could have decided to rescue themselves by sailing for England in the pinnace, left behind by the 1587 expedition. If such an effort was made, the ship could have been lost with all hands at sea, accounting for the absence of both the ship and any trace of the colonists.{{Sfn|Stick|1983|pp= 235–236}} It is plausible that the colony included sailors qualified to attempt the return voyage. Little is known about the pinnace, but ships of its size were capable of making the trip, although they typically did so alongside other vessels.{{Sfn|Fullam|2017|pp= 83–84}}
The colonists may have feared that taking a standard route across the Atlantic Ocean, with a stop in the Caribbean, would place them at risk of a Spanish attack; and thus chosen to attempt a direct course to England instead. Making such a voyage was not infeasible{{snd}}in 1563, French settlers at the failed [[Charlesfort-Santa Elena Site#Charlesfort (1562–1563)|Charlesfort]] colony on what is now [[Parris Island, South Carolina]] built a crude boat and successfully (albeit desperately) returned to Europe.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Purchas |first1=Samuel |title=Hakluytus Posthumus, or, Purchas His Pilgrimes: Contayning a History of the World in Sea Voyages and Lande Travells by Englishmen and Others |publisher=James MacLehose and Sons |publication-place=Glasgow |publication-date=1906 |volume=18 |page=182}}</ref> Alternatively, the Roanoke colonists could have sailed north along the coast, in the hopes of making contact with English fishing fleets in the [[Gulf of Maine]].{{Sfn|Fullam|2017|pp= 85–89}}
The pinnace would not have been large enough to carry all of the colonists. Additionally, the provisions needed for a transatlantic voyage would further restrict the number of passengers. The colonists may have possessed the resources to construct another seaworthy vessel, using local lumber and spare parts from the pinnace. Considering that ships were later built by survivors of the 1609 ''[[Sea Venture]]'' shipwreck, it is at least possible that the Lost Colonists could produce a second ship that, with the pinnace, could transport most of their party.{{Sfn|Fullam|2017|pp= 84–90}} Even in these ideal conditions, however, at least some colonists would remain in Virginia, leaving open the question of what became of them.{{Sfn|Stick|1983|p= 244}}
===Conspiracy against Raleigh===
Anthropologist Lee Miller proposed that Sir [[Francis Walsingham]], Simon Fernandes, Edward Strafford, and others participated in a conspiracy to [[marooning|maroon]] the 1587 colonists at Roanoke. The purpose of this plot, she argued, was to undermine Walter Raleigh, whose activities supposedly interfered with Walsingham's covert machinations to make England a Protestant world power, at the expense of Spain and other Catholic nations. This conspiracy would have impeded Raleigh and White from dispatching a relief mission until Walsingham's death in 1590.{{Sfn|Miller|2002|pp= 168–204}} Miller also suggested that the colonists may have been [[English Dissenters|separatists]], seeking refuge in America from religious persecution in England. Raleigh expressed sympathy for the separatists, while Walsingham considered them a threat to be eliminated.{{Sfn|Miller|2002|pp= 43–50, 316}}
According to Miller, the colonists split up, with a small group relocating to Croatoan while the main body sought shelter with the [[Chowanoke]]. The colonists, however, would have quickly spread European diseases among their hosts, decimating the Chowanoke and thereby destabilizing the balance of power in the region. From there Miller reasoned that the Chowanoke were attacked, with the survivors taken captive, by the "Mandoag", a powerful nation to the west that the Jamestown colonists only knew from the vague accounts of their neighbors.{{Sfn|Miller|2002|pp= 227–237}} She concluded that the "Mandoag" were the [[Eno people|Eno]], who traded the captured surviving Lost Colonists as slaves, dispersing them throughout the region.{{Sfn|Miller|2002|pp= 255–260}}
Miller's theory has been challenged based on Walsingham's considerable financial support of Raleigh's expeditions, and the willingness of Fernandes to bring John White back to England, instead of abandoning him with the other colonists.{{Sfn|Fullam|2017|pp= 29–30}}
===Secret operation at Beechland===
Local legends in Dare County refer to an abandoned settlement called "Beechland", located within what is now the [[Alligator River National Wildlife Refuge]]. The area has had reports of small coffins, some with Christian markings, encouraging speculation of a link to the Lost Colony.{{Sfn|Gabriel-Powell|2016|pp= 127–128}} Based on these legends, engineer Phillip McMullan and amateur archaeologist Fred Willard concluded that Walter Raleigh dispatched the 1587 colonists to harvest [[sassafras]] along the Alligator River. All records suggesting the colony's intended destination was Chesapeake Bay, and that England had lost contact with the colony, were supposedly falsified to conceal the operation from Spanish operatives and other potential competitors.<ref name="McMullan 2010">{{cite thesis |type=M.A. in History |last=McMullan |first=Philip S. Jr. |date=October 28, 2010 |title=Beechland and the Lost Colony |publisher=North Carolina State University |url=http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/resolver/1840.16/6486 |access-date=September 5, 2019 |archive-date=April 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417064551/https://repository.lib.ncsu.edu/handle/1840.16/6486 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=263}}
According to McMullan,<ref name="McMullan 2010"/> Raleigh quietly re-established contact with the colony by 1597, and his sassafras expeditions were simply picking up the colonists' harvests. In this view, the colony was not truly abandoned until the secret of the colony's location died with Raleigh in 1618. After that point, McMullan argued, the colonists would have begun to assimilate with the Croatan at Beechland.<ref name="McMullan 2010"/>
This hypothesis largely depends upon oral traditions and unsubstantiated reports about Beechland, as well as a 1651 map that depicts a sassafras tree near the Alligator River. A significant problem with the hypothesis is that Raleigh supposedly planned a sassafras farm in 1587, to capitalize on a dramatic increase in crop prices, so that he could quickly compensate for the great expense of the failed 1585 colony.<ref name="McMullan 2010"/> The proposed financial motivation overlooks the fact that Richard Grenville's privateering recovered the cost of the 1585 expedition.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=60}} Additionally, sassafras prices did not skyrocket in value until the late 1590s, well after the establishment of the 1587 colony.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=112}}
===Spanish attack===
[[Paul Green (playwright)|Paul Green]], while collecting material for a [[The Lost Colony (play)|1937 stage play]], noticed that Spanish records from the period contained abundant references to Raleigh and his settlements.{{Sfn|Betts|1938|pp= 63–64}} Spanish forces knew of English plans to establish a new Virginia base in 1587 and were searching for it before White's colonists had even arrived. The Spanish Empire had included most of North America in their Florida claim and did not recognize England's right to colonize Roanoke or Chesapeake Bay. Given the Spanish sack of [[Fort Caroline]] in 1565, the colonists likely recognized the threat they represented.{{efn|[[The Lost Colony (play)|Green's play]] ends with the colonists leaving Roanoke Island to evade an approaching Spanish ship, leaving the audience to wonder if the Spanish found them.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=353}}}}{{Sfn|Fullam|2017|pp= 33–34}} However, the Spanish were still searching for the colony in Chesapeake Bay as late as 1600, suggesting that they also were unaware of its fate.{{Sfn|Stick|1983|p= 238}}
===CORA tree===
In 2006, writer Scott Dawson proposed that a [[Quercus virginiana|Southern live oak tree]] on Hatteras Island, which bears the faint inscription "CORA" in its bark, might be connected to the Lost Colony. The CORA tree had already been the subject of local legends, most notably a story about a witch named "Cora" that was popularized in a 1989 book by [[Charles H. Whedbee]]. Nevertheless, Dawson argued that the inscription might represent another message from the colonists, similar to the "CROATOAN" inscription at Roanoke.{{Sfn|Fullam|2017|pp= 71–72}} If so, "CORA" might indicate that the colonists left Croatoan Island to settle with the [[Coree]] (also known as the Coranine) on the mainland near [[Lake Mattamuskeet]].{{Sfn|Gabriel-Powell|2016|p= 128}}
A 2009 study to determine the age of the CORA tree was inconclusive. Damage to the tree caused by lightning and decay has made it impossible to obtain a valid core sample for tree-ring dating. Even if the tree dates back to the 16th&nbsp;century, establishing the age of the inscription would be another matter.{{Sfn|Fullam|2017|pp= 72–73}}
===Dare Stones===
{{Main|Dare Stones}}
From 1937 to 1941, a series of [[Virginia Dare#Eleanor Dare stones|inscribed stones]] were discovered that were claimed to have been written by [[Eleanor Dare]], mother of [[Virginia Dare]]. They told of the travelings of the colonists and their ultimate deaths. Most historians today believe that they are a fraud because investigations linked all but one to stonecutter Bill Eberhardt.<ref>{{cite journal |last=la&nbsp;Vere |first=David |title=The 1937 Chowan River "dare stone": A re-evaluation |journal=North Carolina Historical Review |volume=86 |issue=3 |pages=251–281 |date=July 2009 |jstor=23523860 |location=Raleigh, North Carolina |publisher=North Carolina Office of Archives and History}}</ref> The first one is sometimes regarded as different from the rest, based on a linguistic and chemical analysis, and as possibly genuine.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2018/07/05/dismissed-as-a-forgery-could-a-mysterious-stone-found-near-roanokes-lost-colony-actually-be-real/?noredirect=on |title=Dismissed as a forgery, could a mysterious stone found near Roanoke's "Lost Colony" be real? |first=Gillian |last=Brockell |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=July 5, 2018 |access-date=September 3, 2019}}</ref>
==In popular culture==
[[File:Roanoke colony half dollar commemorative reverse.jpg|thumb|Reverse of a [[Roanoke Island, North Carolina half dollar|commemorative 1937 US half-dollar coin]], depicting Eleanor and Virginia Dare]]
Raleigh was publicly criticized for his apparent indifference to the fate of the 1587 colony, most notably by Sir [[Francis Bacon]].{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=111}} "It is the sinfullest thing in the world," Bacon wrote in 1597, "to forsake or destitute a plantation once in forwardness; for besides the dishonour, it is the guiltiness of blood of many commiserable persons."<ref>{{cite book |last=Bacon |first=Francis |author-link=Francis Bacon |year=1883 |orig-year=1597 |title=The Essays: Or, Counsels, Civil and Moral: and The Wisdom of the Ancients |chapter=On Plantations |edition=16th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kBo_AAAAYAAJ |location=Boston |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |page=176 |access-date=August 18, 2019 |archive-date=March 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302133123/https://books.google.com/books?id=kBo_AAAAYAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> The 1605 comedy ''[[Eastward Hoe]]'' features characters bound for Virginia, who are assured that the lost colonists have by that time intermarried with Native Americans to give rise to "a whole country of English".<ref>{{cite book |first1=George |last1=Chapman |author-link1=George Chapman |first2=Ben |last2=Jonson |author-link2=Ben Jonson |first3=John |last3=Marston |author-link3=John Marston (poet) |year=1605 |title=Eastward Hoe |at=Act III, scene 3 |url=http://hollowaypages.com/jonsoneastward.htm |access-date=August 18, 2019 |archive-date=November 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106043551/http://www.hollowaypages.com/jonsoneastward.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
United States historians largely overlooked or minimized the importance of the Roanoke settlements until 1834, when [[George Bancroft]] lionized the 1587 colonists in ''A History of the United States''.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=127–128}} Bancroft emphasized the nobility of Walter Raleigh, the treachery of Simon Fernandes, the threat of the Secotan, the courage of the colonists, and the uncanny tragedy of their loss.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=128–129}}{{Sfn|Bancroft|1834|pp= 117–123}} He was the first since John White to write about Virginia Dare, calling attention to her status as the first English child born on what would become US soil, and the pioneering spirit exhibited by her name.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=129}}{{Sfn|Bancroft|1834|p= 122}} The account captivated the American public. As Andrew Lawler puts it, "The country was hungry for an origin story more enchanting than the spoiled fops of [[Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown]] or the straitlaced [[Pilgrims (Plymouth Colony)|Puritans]] of [[Plymouth Colony|Plymouth]]... Roanoke, with its knights and villains and its brave but outnumbered few facing an alien culture, provided all the elements for a national myth."{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=129}}
The first known use of the phrase "The Lost Colony" to describe the 1587 Roanoke settlement was by [[Eliza Lanesford Cushing]] in an 1837 historical romance, ''Virginia Dare; or, the Lost Colony''.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=276}}<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Cushing |first=Eliza Lanesford |author-link=Eliza Lanesford Cushing |date=December 1837 |volume=8 |pages=80–92 |title=Virginia Dare; or the Lost Colony. A Tale of the Early Settlers. |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433081685335&view=1up&seq=112 |magazine=The Ladies' Companion |location=New York |access-date=August 18, 2019 |archive-date=February 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224172738/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433081685335&view=1up&seq=112 |url-status=live }}</ref> Cushing also appears to be the first to cast White's granddaughter being reared by Native Americans, following the massacre of the other colonists, and to focus on her adventures as a beautiful young woman.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=277}} In 1840, Cornelia Tuthill published a similar story, introducing the conceit of Virginia wearing the skin of a white doe.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=278}}<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Tuthill |first=Cornelia |date=September 1840 |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=585–595 |title=Virginia Dare: or, the Colony of Roanoke |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=idtEAQAAMAAJ |magazine=Southern Literary Messenger |location=Richmond |access-date=August 18, 2019 |archive-date=March 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302133125/https://books.google.com/books?id=idtEAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> An 1861 ''Raleigh Register'' serial by Mary Mason employs the premise of Virginia being magically transformed into a white doe.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=280}}<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Mason |first=Mary |date=December 1875 |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ourlivingourdead03sout/page/753 753–771] |title=The White Doe Chase: A legend of olden times |url=https://archive.org/details/ourlivingourdead03sout |magazine=Our Living and Our Dead |location=Raleigh, North Carolina |publisher=S.D. Pool |access-date=August 18, 2019}}</ref> The same concept was used more famously in ''The White Doe'', a 1901 poem by [[Sallie Southall Cotten]].{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=283–284}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Cotten |first=Sallie Southall |author-link=Sallie Southall Cotten |title=The White Doe: The Fate of Virginia Dare – An Indian Legend |publisher=J.B. Lippincott Company |date=1901 |location=Philadelphia |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/28796 |access-date=August 18, 2019 |archive-date=August 18, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190818235135/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/28796 |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Lost Colony Tree - Fort Raleigh National Historic Site - Stierch.jpg|thumb|Re-creation of the tree inscribed with "CRO", from a production of ''[[The Lost Colony (play)|The Lost Colony]]'']]
The popularity of the Lost Colony and Virginia Dare in the 19th and early 20th&nbsp;centuries coincided with American controversies about rising numbers of Catholic and non-British immigrants, as well as the treatment of [[African Americans]] and Native Americans.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=276}} Both the colony and the adult Virginia character were embraced as symbols of [[white nationalism]].{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=281}} Even when Virginia Dare was invoked in the name of [[Women's suffrage in the United States|women's suffrage]] in the 1920s, it was to persuade North Carolina legislators that granting ''white'' women the vote would assure white supremacy.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=281}} By the 1930s this racist connotation apparently subsided, although the [[VDARE]] organization, founded in 1999, has been denounced for promoting white supremacists.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=290–291}}
Celebrations of the Lost Colony, on Virginia Dare's birthday, have been organized on Roanoke Island since the 1880s.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=294}} To expand the tourist attraction, [[Paul Green (playwright)|Paul Green]]'s play ''[[The Lost Colony (play)|The Lost Colony]]'' opened in 1937 and remains in production today. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] attended the play on August 18, 1937 – Virginia Dare's 350th&nbsp;birthday.{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|pp=141, 347}}
Bereft of its full context, the colonists' sparse message of "CROATOAN" has taken on a [[paranormal]] quality in [[Harlan Ellison]]'s 1975 short story ''[[Croatoan (Ellison)|Croatoan]]'' and [[Stephen King]]'s 1999 television miniseries ''[[Storm of the Century]]''. It is also the name of a humanlike villain (portrayed by William Shatner) in the fifth season of King's [[Haven (TV series)|''Haven'']]. Croatoan also appears in the 2005 television series ''[[Supernatural (American TV series)|Supernatural]].''{{Sfn|Lawler|2018|p=185}}<ref name="mtvlist">{{cite web |title=9 Times pop culture delved into Roanoke before ''American Horror Story'' |url=http://www.mtv.com/news/2933092/american-horror-story-roanoke-croatoan-pop-culture-history/ |website=MTV.com |date=September 21, 2016 |first=Stacey |last=Grant |access-date=August 18, 2019 |archive-date=August 18, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190818235141/http://www.mtv.com/news/2933092/american-horror-story-roanoke-croatoan-pop-culture-history/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> In the 1994 graphic novel ''[[Batman-Spawn: War Devil]]'', "Croatoan" is  the name of a powerful demon who, in the 20th century, attempts to sacrifice the entirety of [[Gotham City]] to Satan.<ref>{{cite book |last=Manning |first=Matthew K.|editor-last=Dolan|editor-first=Hannah |chapter=1990s |title=DC Comics Year By Year A Visual Chronicle |publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]] |date=2010 |location=London |isbn=978-0-7566-6742-9 |page=267 |quote=Fans were also treated to a companion special entitled ''Batman-Spawn''...by writers Doug Moench, Chuck Dixon, and Alan Grant, and artist Klaus Janson.}}</ref>
The 2011 ''[[American Horror Story]]'' episode "[[Birth (American Horror Story)|Birth]]" relates a fictional legend in which the Lost Colonists mysteriously died, and their ghosts haunted the local Native Americans until a tribal elder banished them with the word "Croatoan".<ref name="Robinson 2016">{{cite magazine |date=September 14, 2016 |title=American Horror Story's New Theme Hauntingly Connects to Season 1 |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2016/08/american-horror-story-roanoke-croatoan-season-6-theme-cult |magazine=Vanity Fair |access-date=October 9, 2019 |author-first=Joanna |author-last=Robinson |archive-date=October 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021041405/https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2016/08/american-horror-story-roanoke-croatoan-season-6-theme-cult |url-status=live }}</ref> This premise is expanded upon in the sixth season of the series, ''[[American Horror Story: Roanoke]]'', which presents a series of fictional television programs documenting encounters with the ghost colonists.<ref name="Strause 2016b">{{cite web |author-last=Strause |author-first=Jackie |date=November 16, 2016 |title='American Horror Story': 'Roanoke' Finale Delivers Another Twist, Connects 'AHS' Seasons |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live-feed/american-horror-story-roanoke-how-did-end-season-6-finale-948190 |access-date=October 9, 2019 |website=The Hollywood Reporter |archive-date=October 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009072846/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live-feed/american-horror-story-roanoke-how-did-end-season-6-finale-948190 |url-status=live }}</ref> The leader of the undead colonists, "[[List of American Horror Story: Roanoke characters#Thomasin White/The Butcher|The Butcher]]", is depicted as John White's wife Thomasin, although there is no historical evidence that she was one of the colonists.<ref name="Strause 2016a">{{cite web |author-last=Strause |author-first=Jackie |date=November 10, 2016 |title='American Horror Story: Roanoke': Everything to Know After Episode 9 |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lists/american-horror-story-season-6-roanoke-cast-gaga-episode-9-10-928472 |access-date=October 9, 2016 |website=The Hollywood Reporter |archive-date=November 10, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110142243/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lists/american-horror-story-season-6-roanoke-cast-gaga-episode-9-10-928472 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Gallagher 2016">{{cite web |author-last=Gallagher |author-first=Caitlin |date=October 5, 2016 |title="Which 'AHS: Roanoke' characters are real? The "Based on a true story" claim isn't false" |url=https://www.bustle.com/p/which-ahs-roanoke-characters-are-real-the-based-on-a-true-story-claim-isnt-false-19713 |access-date=October 9, 2019 |website=Bustle |archive-date=October 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009072844/https://www.bustle.com/p/which-ahs-roanoke-characters-are-real-the-based-on-a-true-story-claim-isnt-false-19713 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In the 2015 novel ''[[The Last American Vampire]]'', the colonists are the victims of a [[vampire]] named "Crowley"; the inscription "CRO" was thus an incomplete attempt to implicate him.<ref name="mtvlist" />
==See also==
* [[List of people who disappeared mysteriously: pre-1910]]
* [[Timeline of the colonization of North America]]
==Notes==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Works cited==
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book |last=Lawler |first=Andrew |title=The Secret Token: Myth, Obsession, and the Search for the Lost Colony of Roanoke |publisher=Doubleday |location=New York |year=2018 |isbn=978-0385542012}}
*{{cite book |last=Quinn |first=David B. |author-link=David Beers Quinn |title=Set Fair for Roanoke: Voyages and Colonies, 1584–1606 |url=https://archive.org/details/setfairforroanok00quin |url-access=registration |access-date=October 2, 2019 |date=1985 |location=Chapel Hill |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-4123-5 }}
*{{cite book |last=Kupperman |first=Karen Ordahl |author-link=Karen Ordahl Kupperman |title=Roanoke: The Abandoned Colony |edition=2nd |year=2007 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham, Maryland |isbn=978-0-7425-5263-0}}
*{{cite book |last=Horn |first=James |title=A Kingdom Strange: The Brief and Tragic History of the Lost Colony of Roanoke |url=https://archive.org/details/kingdomstrangeb00horn |url-access=registration |year=2010 |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-00485-0 }}
*{{cite book |author-last=Morison |author-first=Samuel Eliot |author-link=Samuel Eliot Morison |title=The European Discovery of America |volume=1: The Northern Voyages, A.D. 500–1600 |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1971 |isbn=0-19-501377-8}}
*{{cite book |last=Milton |first=Giles |author-link=Giles Milton |title=Big Chief Elizabeth: The Adventures and Fate of the First English Colonists in America |url=https://archive.org/details/bigchiefelizabet00milt |url-access=registration |access-date=October 2, 2019 |year=2001 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |location=New York |isbn=978-0-312-42018-5 }}
*{{cite book |title=The Roanoke Voyages, 1584–1590: Documents to illustrate the English Voyages to North America under the Patent granted to Walter Raleigh in 1584. |editor-last=Quinn |editor-first=David Beers |editor-link=David Beers Quinn |year=1955 |publication-date=2010 |publisher=Ashgate |location=Farnham |isbn=978-1-4094-1709-5}}
*{{cite book |last=Gabriel-Powell |first=Andy |title=Richard Grenville and the Lost Colony of Roanoke |year=2016 |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |publisher=McFarland & Company |isbn=978-1-4766-6571-9}}
*{{cite book |author-last=Oberg |author-first=Michael Leroy |title=The Head in Edward Nugent's Hand: Roanoke's Forgotten Indians |location=Philadelphia |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8122-4031-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/headinedwardnuge00ober |access-date=October 8, 2019 }}
*{{cite book |last=Fullam |first=Brandon |title=The Lost Colony of Roanoke: New Perspectives |year=2017 |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |publisher=McFarland & Company, Inc. |isbn=978-1-4766-6786-7}}
*{{cite book |last1=Grizzard |first1=Frank E. |last2=Smith |first2=D. Boyd |title=Jamestown Colony: A Political, Social, and Cultural History |location=Santa Barbara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=555CzPsGLDMC |access-date=October 2, 2019 |year=2007 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-637-4 |archive-date=April 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417064547/https://books.google.com/books?id=555CzPsGLDMC |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book |author=Anon. |chapter=The voiage made by Sir Richard Greenuile, for Sir Walter Ralegh, to Virginia, in the yeere 1585. |editor-last1=Hakluyt |editor-first1=Richard |editor-link1=Richard Hakluyt |editor-last2=Goldsmid |editor-first2=Edmund |location=Edinburgh |publisher=E. & G. Goldsmid |publication-date=1889 |year=1600 |title=The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, And Discoveries of the English Nation |volume=XIII: America. Part II. |pages=293–300 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LmYjJ4CVhkwC&pg=PA293 |access-date=September 8, 2019 |archive-date=April 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417064615/https://books.google.com/books?id=LmYjJ4CVhkwC&pg=PA293 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book |last=Van Zandt |first=Cynthia J. |title=Brothers Among Nations: The Pursuit of Intercultural Alliances in Early America, 1580–1660 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_2Kt4KZIlwIC |access-date=October 2, 2019 |date=2008 |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0199720552 |archive-date=April 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417064615/https://books.google.com/books?id=_2Kt4KZIlwIC |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book |last=Rountree |first=Helen C. |title=Pocahontas's People: The Powhatan Indians of Virginia Through Four Centuries |url=https://archive.org/details/pocahontasspeopl0000roun |url-access=registration |year=1990 |location=Norman, Oklahoma |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=0-8061-2280-3 }}
*{{cite journal |author-last=Donegan |author-first=Kathleen |title=What Happened in Roanoke: Ralph Lane's Narrative Incursion |journal=Early American Literature |volume=48 |number=2 |date=2013 |pages=285–314 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |jstor=24476352 |doi=10.1353/eal.2013.0032 |s2cid=162342657}}
*{{cite book |last=Harrington |first=Jean Carl |author-link=J. C. Harrington |title=Search for the Cittie of Raleigh: Archeological Excavations at Fort Raleigh National Historic Site, North Carolina |year=1962 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=National Park Service, US Department of the Interior |url=https://archive.org/details/searchforcittieoharr |access-date=September 20, 2019 }}
*{{cite book |author-last=Lane |author-first=Ralph |author-link=Ralph Lane |chapter=An account of the particularities of the imployments of the English men left in Virginia by Richard Greeneuill vnder the charge of Master Ralph Lane Generall of the same, from the 17. of August 1585. vntil the 18. of Iune 1586. at which time they departed the Countrey; sent and directed to Sir Walter Ralegh. |editor-last1=Hakluyt |editor-first1=Richard |editor-link1=Richard Hakluyt |editor-last2=Goldsmid |editor-first2=Edmund |location=Edinburgh |publisher=E. & G. Goldsmid |publication-date=1889 |year=1600 |title=The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, And Discoveries of the English Nation |volume=XIII: America. Part II. |pages=302–322 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LmYjJ4CVhkwC&pg=PA302 |access-date=October 4, 2019 |archive-date=April 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417064547/https://books.google.com/books?id=LmYjJ4CVhkwC&pg=PA302 |url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|Lane|1586}} }}
*{{cite book |last=Chandler |first=J. A. C. |author-link=J. A. C. Chandler |chapter=The Beginnings of Virginia, 1584–1624 |editor-last=Chandler |editor-first=J. A. C. |title=The South in the Building of the Nation: A History of the Southern States Designed to Record the South's Part in Making the American Nation; to Portray the Character and Genius, to Chronicle the Achievements and Progress and to Illustrate the Life and Traditions of the Southern People |volume=I: History of the States |pages=1–23 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GbsRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR55 |access-date=September 25, 2019 |year=1909 |location=Richmond, Virginia |publisher=The Southern Historical Publication Society |archive-date=April 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417064611/https://books.google.com/books?id=GbsRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR55 |url-status=live }}
*{{cite book |last1=Hakluyt |first1=Richard |title=The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation. America |date=1889 |publisher=E. & G. Goldsmid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LmYjJ4CVhkwC |access-date=2 March 2023 |language=en |archive-date=April 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410011344/https://books.google.com/books?id=LmYjJ4CVhkwC |url-status=live }}
*{{cite journal |last=Powell |first=William S. |author-link=William S. Powell |title=Roanoke Colonists and Explorers: An Attempt at Identification |journal=The North Carolina Historical Review |volume=34 |number=2 |year=1957 |pages=202–226 |publisher=North Carolina Office of Archives and History |jstor=23516851}}
*{{cite book |last=Strachey |first=William |author-link=William Strachey |title=The Historie of Travaile into Virginia Britannia: Expressing the cosmographie and commodities of the country, togither with the manners and customes of the people |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fYYMAAAAIAAJ |access-date=October 2, 2019 |publication-date=1849 |date=1612 |editor-first=Richard Henry |editor-last=Major |editor-link=Richard Henry Major |publisher=Hakluyt Society |location=London }}
*{{cite book |author=Virginia Council |editor-last=Kingsbury |editor-first=Susan Myra |editor-link=Susan Myra Kingsbury |location=Washington, DC |publisher=United States Government Printing Office |publication-date=1933 |chapter=Instruccons orders and constitucons to Sr Thomas Gates Knight Governor of Virginia |title=The Records of the Virginia Company of London |volume=3 |pages=12–24 |date=1609 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/recordsofvirgini03virg/page/12 |access-date=September 4, 2019 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Cain |first=Tom |title=John Donne and the Ideology of Colonization |journal=English Literary Renaissance |volume=31 |number=3 |date=2001 |pages=440–476 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |jstor=43447628 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-6757.2001.tb01196.x |pmid=18942234 |s2cid=40733610}}
*{{cite journal |title=English Perceptions of Treachery, 1583-1640: The Case of the American 'Savages' |last=Kupperman |first=Karen Ordahl |author-link=Karen Ordahl Kupperman |journal=The Historical Journal |volume=20 |number=2 |date=1977 |pages=263–287 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |jstor=2638533 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X00011079 |s2cid=159933835}}
*{{cite book |author-last=Purchas |author-first=Samuel |author-link=Samuel Purchas |chapter=Virginias Verger: or a discourse shewing the benefits which may grow to this Kingdome from American-English Plantations, and specially those of Virginia and Summer Ilands |editor-last=Purchas |editor-first=Samuel |title=Hakluytus posthumus, or, Purchas his Pilgrimes: contayning a history of the world in sea voyages and lande travells by Englishmen and others |volume=19 |pages=218–267 |publication-date=1906 |year=1625 |location=Glasgow |publisher=J. MacLehose and Sons |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/hakluytusposthum19purc/page/218 |access-date=August 31, 2019 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Parramore |first=Thomas C.|author-link= Thomas C. Parramore |title=The "Lost Colony" Found: A Documentary Perspective |journal=The North Carolina Historical Review |volume=78 |number=1 |date=2001 |pages=67–83 |publisher=North Carolina Office of Archives and History |jstor=23522231}}
*{{cite journal |last=Brooks |first=Baylus C. |title=John Lawson's Indian Town on Hatteras Island, North Carolina |journal=The North Carolina Historical Review |volume=91 |number=2 |date=2014 |pages=171–207 |jstor=23719093}}
*{{cite book |last=Stick |first=David |title=Roanoke Island – the Beginnings of English America |url=https://archive.org/details/roanokeislandbeg00stic |url-access=registration |access-date=October 2, 2019 |year=1983 |location=Chapel Hill |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=978-0-8078-4110-5 }}
*{{cite book |first=George |last=Bancroft |author-link=George Bancroft |title=A History of the United States, from the Discovery of the American Continent to the Present Time |publisher=Charles Bowen |location=Boston |year=1834 |url=https://archive.org/details/ahistoryuniteds01bancgoog |access-date=August 18, 2019 }}
*{{cite book |last=Lawson |first=John |author-link=John Lawson (explorer) |title=A New Voyage to Carolina; Containing the Exact Description and Natural History of that Country: Together with the Present State thereof. And a Journal Of a Thousand Miles, Travel'd thro' several Nations of Indians. Giving a particular Account of their Customs, Manners, &c. |url=https://archive.org/details/newvoyagetocarol00laws/ |access-date=September 3, 2019 |year=1709 |location=London |publisher=s.n. }}
*{{cite book |last=Miller |first=Lee |title=Roanoke: Solving the Mystery of the Lost Colony |publisher=Penguin Books |orig-year=2000 |year=2002 |isbn=0142002283}}
*{{cite magazine |last=Betts |first=Robert E. |title=The Lost Colony |magazine=The Cornhill Magazine |volume=158 |number=943 |year=1938 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.185179/page/n7 50–67] |location=London, UK |publisher=John Murray |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.185179 |access-date=September 14, 2019 }}
{{Refend}}
==External links==
{{commons category}}
* [https://www.nps.gov/fora/index.htm Fort Raleigh National Historic Site]
* ''[https://digital.lib.ecu.edu/51195 The Lost Colony]'' (1921 silent film)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150908024657/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/h/hakluyt/voyages/v13/virginia/complete.html The First Colony of Virginia], documents originally from Richard Hakluyt's ''The Principall Nauigations'' (1598–1600)
* {{Skeptoid | id= 4245| number= 245| title= Finding the Lost Colony of Roanoke| date= February 15, 2011| l access-date=}}
===Historical/Archaeological organizations===
* [https://www.firstcolonyfoundation.org/ First Colony Foundation]
* [http://www.cashatteras.com/ Croatoan Archaeological Society]
* [https://www.thelostcolony.org/ Roanoke Island Historical Association]
{{Roanoke Colony}}
{{Thirteen Colonies}}
{{Kingdom of England}}
{{Outer Banks}}
{{Portal bar|England|Modern history|Monarchy|North America}}<!-- EDITORS NOTE: Please do not add "Portal:British Empire", "Portal:North Carolina", or "Portal:United States" as it would be historically inaccurate. Thank you. -->
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Roanoke Colony}}
[[Category:Roanoke Colony| ]]
[[Category:1580s in North America]]
[[Category:1580s in the British Empire]]
[[Category:1585 establishments in North America]]
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[[Category:1590s missing person cases]]
[[Category:16th century in North America]]
[[Category:Colonial North Carolina]]
[[Category:Colonial United States (British)]]
[[Category:Colonization history of the United States]]
[[Category:Dare County, North Carolina]]
[[Category:Elizabeth I]]
[[Category:English colonization of the Americas]]
[[Category:Ghost towns in North Carolina]]
[[Category:Former English colonies]]
[[Category:History of the Thirteen Colonies]]
[[Category:Lost cities and towns]]
[[Category:Mass disappearances]]
[[Category:Missing people]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of North Carolina]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1585]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 1590s]]
[[Category:Unexplained disappearances]]
[[Category:Populated places established in 1585]]
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