View source for Sangley

{{short description|Archaic terms used in the Philippines}}
{{Multiple issues
|{{Refimprove|date=January 2011}}
{{More footnotes|date=January 2011}}
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{{Use Philippine English|date=March 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Sangley
| image            = Pinayavatar.jpg
| caption          = A ''mestiza de sangley'', {{circa|1875}}
| population       =
| langs            = [[Philippine Spanish]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] ([[Filipino language|Filipino]]), [[Philippine Hokkien]], [[Cantonese]], [[Taishanese]], [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]], [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]], [[Hiligaynon language|Hiligaynon/Ilonggo]], [[Philippine English]], [[Waray language|Waray-Waray]], [[Bikol languages|Bicolano]], [[Kapampangan language|Kapampangan]], [[Pangasinan language|Pangasinense]], [[Maranao language|Maranao]], [[Tausug language|Tausug]], [[Maguindanao language|Maguindanaon]], [[Chavacano]], [[Karay-a language|Kinaray-a]], [[Surigaonon language|Surigaonon]] and other [[Varieties of Chinese|Chinese]] and [[Languages of the Philippines|Philippine languages]]
| related_groups   = [[Chinese Filipinos]], [[Filipino mestizos]]
}}
'''Sangley''' (English plural: ''Sangleys''; Spanish plural: ''Sangleyes'') and '''Mestizo de Sangley''' ('''Sangley mestizo''', '''''mestisong Sangley''''', '''''chino mestizo''''' or '''Chinese mestizo''') are archaic terms used in the [[Philippines]] during the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish colonial era]] to describe respectively a person of pure [[overseas Chinese]] ancestry and a person of mixed [[Chinese people|Chinese]] and [[Ethnic groups in the Philippines|native Filipino]] ancestry.<ref name="a1">{{cite web |url=http://www.colorq.org/meltingPot/article.aspx?d=Asia&x=MalayChinese |title=Chinese/Native intermarriage in Austronesian Asia |publisher=colorq.org |access-date=January 8, 2011 |archive-date=December 24, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224035615/http://colorq.org/MeltingPot/article.aspx?d=Asia&x=MalayChinese |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Sangley Chinese were ancestors to both modern [[Chinese Filipino]]s and modern [[Filipino Mestizos|Filipino mestizo]] descendants of the ''Mestizos de Sangley,'' also known as Chinese mestizos, which are mixed descendants of Sangley Chinese and native Filipinos. Chinese mestizos were [[Mestizo#Philippines and Spanish Colonial Oceania|''mestizos'']] (mixed peoples) in the [[Spanish Empire]], classified together with other [[Filipino Mestizos|Filipino mestizos]].
The Spanish had such categories as indios ({{langx|es|[[wikt:indio#Spanish|indio]]|lit=Indian}} for [[Indigenous peoples|natives]] of the [[East Indies]]), {{lang|es|mestizos de Español}} (descendants of colonial ethnic Spanish and native-born Filipinos), the [[torna atrás|''tornatrás'']] (Spanish-Chinese mestizos, descendants of colonial [[Spanish Filipino]]s and Sangley Chinese), the ''mestizos de Bombay'' (Indian mestizos, descendants of colonial [[Indian Filipino]]s and native Filipinos), ''mestizos de japoneses'' (Japanese mestizos, descendants of colonial [[Japanese in the Philippines|Japanese Filipinos]] and native Filipinos), etc.
[[Overseas Chinese]] entered the Philippines as traders prior to Spanish colonization. Many emigrated to the Philippines, establishing concentrated communities first in [[Manila]] and throughout the island of [[Luzon]], then in other cities and settlements throughout the archipelago, historically going from [[Luzon]] to [[Visayas]] and [[Mindanao]].
Other [[Filipino language|Filipino]] terms that refer to [[Han Chinese|ethnic Chinese]] or Filipinos with Chinese ancestry:
* '''''Intsik''''' (derived from the [[Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|links=|t=|poj=ín-chek|l=uncle|c=[[wikt:引|引]][[wikt:叔|叔]]|s=|p=}})<ref>{{cite book|last=Chu|first=Richard T.|year=2012|title=Chinese and Chinese Mestizos of Manila: Family, Identity, and Culture, 1860s-1930s|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PRewCQAAQBAJ&q=Santiago+Guan+yu|page=1|publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789047426851 }}</ref> is the native, [[Colloquialism|colloquial informal term]] in [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]/[[Filipino language|Filipino]] and other [[Philippine languages]] used to refer to [[Chinese people]] in general, albeit some speakers prefer 'Tsino' (see below) due to some perceived informal [[Vulgarism|vulgar]] connotations.
* '''''Chinoy''''' or '''''Tsinoy''''' (a [[Blend (linguistics)|blend]] of {{langx|es|links=no|{{linktext|Chino}}|lit=Chinese}} or {{Langx|tl|links=no|{{linktext|Tsino}}|lit=Chinese}} with {{Langx|tl|links=no|{{linktext|Pinoy}}|lit=Filipino}} or the {{Langx|tl|links=no|{{linktext|-oy}}|lit=[[diminutive suffix]]}}) is a modern term currently used in [[Philippine English]] and Tagalog/Filipino and other [[Philippine languages]] to refer to a [[Filipinos|Filipino]] [[Philippine nationality law|citizen]] or [[Permanent residency|permanent resident]] of either mixed (whether partial or half or majority descent) or pure [[Chinese descent]] born and/or raised in the [[Philippines]], also known as [[Chinese Filipinos|<nowiki>''</nowiki>Chinese Filipinos<nowiki>''</nowiki> or <nowiki>''</nowiki>Fil-Chi<nowiki>''</nowiki>]].
* '''''Chino''''' or '''''Tsino''''' is derived from [[Spanish language in the Philippines|Spanish]] and literally means “Chinese”. "''Tsino''" is the [[Prestige (sociolinguistics)|formal]] and [[Literary language|literary]] spelling in Tagalog/Filipino and other Philippine languages.
* '''''Chinito''''' or '''''Tsinito''''' is a term derived from Spanish and means “a young Chinese man”, from {{langx|es|links=no|Chino|lit=Chinese}} with the [[diminutive suffix]] {{Lang|es|{{linktext|-ito}}|lit=male [[diminutive suffix]]}}. "''Tsinito''" is the spelling in Tagalog/Filipino and other Philippine languages.
* '''''Chinita''''' or '''''Tsinita''''' is the feminine form of the above, meaning “a young Chinese woman”, also from {{langx|es|[[wikt:Chino#Spanish|Chino]]|lit=Chinese}} with {{Lang|es|{{linktext|-ita}}|lit=female diminutive suffix}}. "''Tsinita''" is the spelling in Tagalog/Filipino and other Philippine languages.
* '''''Chekwa''''' or '''''Tsekwa''''' is an [[Pejorative|offensive derogatory slang or slur]] referring to both Filipinos with Chinese ancestry, and Chinese people in general. It is derived from [[Cebuano language|Cebuano Bisaya]] as an [[Elision|elided]] [[Compound (linguistics)|compound]] of {{Lang|ceb|{{linktext|Insik}}|lit=Chinese}} + {{Lang|ceb|[[wikt:wakang#Cebuano|wákang]]|lit=[[ethnic slur]] expression used to tease Chinese}}, from “''Insik wákang, [[wikt:kaon#Cebuano|káun]], [[wikt:kalibang#Cebuano|kalibang]]!''",<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wolff|first=John U.|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/40074/40074-h/40074-h.htm|title=A Dictionary of Cebuano Visayan|publisher=Southeast Asia Program of Cornell University & Linguistic Society of the Philippines|year=1972|location=New York}}</ref> a derogatory [[Bisayan languages|Visayan]] children's [[Limerick (poetry)|limerick]] from the [[Late Spanish colonial era in the Philippines|late Spanish colonial era]], where "''Insik''"/"''Intsik''" was originally the Philippine Hokkien {{zh|links=|t=|poj=ín-chek|l=uncle|c={{linktext|引|叔}}|s=|p=}}, and "''wákang''" from {{zh|labels=no|t=|poj=guá kang|l=I work|c={{linktext|我|工}}|s=|p=}}. The last two words come from {{Langx|ceb|links=no|[[wikt:kaon#Cebuano|kaon]]|lit=to eat}} and {{langx|ceb|[[wikt:kalibang#Cebuano|kalibang]]|lit=to defecate}}; The full phrase was thus "''Chinese (labourer), I work, eat, and shit!''" and was when [[opium den]]s were rampant, with many Chinese migrants working as low-wage [[Coolie#Chinese coolies|labourers]].
* '''''Langlang''''' (derived from [[Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|links=|t=|poj=lán-lâng|l=our people|c=[[wikt:咱人|咱人]]|s=|p=}}) is a very [[Obsolescence|obsolete]] term in [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] referring to [[Han Chinese|ethnic Chinese]] persons. It is recorded in the 1613 ''[[Vocabulario de la lengua tagala]]'',<ref>{{Cite book |last=San Buena Ventura |first=Fr. Pedro de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A8QxAQAAMAAJ |title=Vocabulario de lengua tagala: El romance castellano puesto primero |title-link= |publisher=La Noble Villa de Pila |year=1613 |editor-last=de Silva |editor-first=Juan (Don.) |pages=545 |language=[[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] & [[Early Modern Spanish]] |quote=Sangley) Langlang (pc) anſi llamauan los viejos deſtos [a los] ſangleyes cuando venian [a tratar] con ellos |trans-quote=Sangley) Langlang (pc) this is what the elderlies called [the] Sangleyes when they came [to deal] with them}}</ref> where its entry reads in [[Early Modern Spanish|Early Modern]] {{langx|es|Sangley) Langlang (pc) anſi llamauan los viejos deſtos [a los] ſangleyes cuando venian [a tratar] con ellos|lit=Sangley) Langlang (pc) this is what the elderlies called [the] Sangleys when they came [to deal] with them}}. This has long fallen out of use except in  food such as [[Pancit|''Pancit Langlang'']] from [[Cavite]]. The [[etymon]], [[Philippine Hokkien]] {{zh|links=|t=|poj=lán-lâng|l=our people|c=[[wikt:咱人|咱人]]|s=|p=}}, retains its meaning and is still used primarily in [[Philippine Hokkien]] by [[Chinese Filipino|Chinese Filipinos]] as an [[Endonym and exonym|endonym]].
==Etymology==
[[File:Sangley in Boxer Codex.jpg|307x307px|thumb|Sangley couple in ''[[Boxer Codex]] (circa 1590)'', with the label, "''來常 Sangley''" on top with the [[Chinese characters]] traditionally written right to left and when read in the old [[Zhangzhou dialects|Chiangchiu dialect]] of [[Hokkien]] {{zh|t=|poj=siâng lâi|l=frequently comes|c=[[wikt:常|常]][[wikt:來|來]]|s=|p=|cy=}}.|alt=|left]]
There are multiple versions of the interpretation on the word ''Sangley,'' especially as it is also used in historical place names such as ''Punta Sangley'' ([[Naval Station Sangley Point|Sangley Point]]), the northern promontory point and former [[United States|US]] naval base headquarters in the [[Cavite Peninsula]]''.'' Generally, Sangley is usually believed or purported to literally mean "merchant traveler" or "frequent visitor."<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Ocampo |first=Ambeth R. |author-link=Ambeth Ocampo |date=August 19, 2020 |title=Reclaiming 'Intsik' |url=https://opinion.inquirer.net/132826/reclaiming-intsik |access-date=October 21, 2020 |website=INQUIRER.net |publisher=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |language=en}}</ref> According to Go Bon Juan, the most commonly accepted version is usually that the term "sangley" comes from the [[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|t=|poj=Seng-lí , [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: /ɕiɪŋ³³ li⁵⁵⁴/|l=business|c=[[wikt:生理|生理]]|s=|p=}}, which is consistent with the business background of the early Chinese in the Philippines.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|last=Go|first=Bon Juan|date=December 23, 2014 – January 19, 2015|title=Gems of History: Sangley|volume=XXVII|pages=5–6|work=Tulay Fortnightly: Chinese-Filipino Digest|publisher=Kaisa Para Sa Kaunlaran, Inc.|issue=14|issn=0116-6689}}</ref> According to Saul Hofileña Jr on the history of [[Naval Station Sangley Point|Sangley Point]], the name supposedly derived from '''xiangli'', a Chinese word for 'trader', which became "sangley" to the [[Spanish Filipino|Spaniards]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hofileña |first=Saul |title=Under the Stacks |date=2011 |isbn=978-971-95130-0-1 |location=Manila |chapter=Sangley Point and the former U.S. Navy Yard in Cavite City}}</ref> According to Go Bon Juan, Hofileña had apparently based this on the pronunciation of the word "trader" in {{zh|t=|poj=siang-lú / siang-lír / siang-lí|l=traveling merchant|c=[[wikt:商旅|商旅]]|s=|p=shānglǚ}}, which Go Bon Juan considered "a rather literal term uncommon among early Chinese in the Philippines",<ref name=":2" /> although [[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|t=|poj=siang-lú|c=[[wikt:商旅|商旅]]|s=|p=|cy=}} is indeed recorded in the ''Dictionario Hispanico Sinicum'' (1626-1642) that the [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[Spanish Friars in Colonial Philippines|Spanish friars]] recorded before in Manila as one of the terms listed as {{Langx|es|mercader|lit=merchant}}. Another cited possible etymon is the [[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|t=|poj=siâng lâi|l=frequently comes|c=[[wikt:常來人|常來]]|s=|p=|cy=}}, which appeared beside "Sangley" labeled in the [[Boxer Codex]] (circa 1590s),<ref name=":2" /> [[Luis Pérez Dasmariñas|Dasmariñas]] record to the [[Monarchy of Spain|King of Spain]], which also contains the probable earliest romanization of Japan as "Iapon." It is said that the late [[William Henry Scott (historian)|William Henry Scott]], an authority on [[History of the Philippines|Philippine history]], had seen this picture and supported this version.<ref name=":2" /> Additionally, the ''Bocabulario de la lengua sangleya por las letraz de el A.B.C.'' (1617) also offers two explanations, it also gives [[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|t=|poj=siâng lâi|c=[[wikt:常來人|常來]]|s=|p=|cy=}} explaining it as ''"he who comes very often"'' and [[Philippine Hokkien|Hokkien]] {{zh|t=|poj=siang lâi|c=[[wikt:商|商]][[wikt:來|來]]|s=|p=|cy=}} which it explains as "those who come to trade" which the ''Bocabulario'' however prefers the latter.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Van der Loon |first=Piet |date=1967 |title=The Manila Incunabula and Early Hokkien Studies, Part 2 |url=http://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/1745sWSSKnQ.pdf |journal=Asia Major |series=New Series |volume=13 |pages=101}}</ref> In [[Wenceslao Retana]]'s ''Diccionario de filipinismos'' (1921), the entry for ''Sangley'' was also recorded before as ([[sic]]):<ref>{{cite book |last1=Quilis |first1=Antonio |url=https://www.rae.es/sites/default/files/Quilis_Casado_Fresnedilla_Quilis_Sanz_7_55_Reducido.pdf |title=Los filipinismos y otras palabras de Filipinas contenidas en el «Diccionario» de la Academia |last2=Casado-Fresnillo |first2=Celia |last3=Quilis-Sanz |first3=María José |date=1997 |publisher=Boletín de la Real Academia Española |page=45}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text={{lang|es|'''Sangley''' (del chino '''xiang-lay''', mercader.) adj. Nombre que en lo antiguo se dio en Filipinas a los mercaderes chinos, y que luego se hizo genérico de los de esta raza residentes en aquellas islas}}<br />
'''Sangley''' (from Chinese '''xiang-lay''', merchant.) adj. Name that in ancient times was given in the Philippines to Chinese merchants, and that later became generic to those of this race residing in those islands.|author=[[Wenceslao Retana|Wenceslao E. Retaña]]|source=Diccionario de filipinismos, con la revisión de lo que al respecto lleva publicado la Real academia española (1921)}}
[[Spanish East Indies|Spanish]] [[Governor-General of the Philippines|Governor-General]] [[Francisco de Sande]] also notes in his ''Relacion y Descripciones de las Islas Filipinas'' (''"Relation and Description of the Filipinas Islands"'', 1576) as per Manuel (1948):<ref>{{Cite book |last=Manuel |first=E. Arsenio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dJFkAAAAMAAJ&q=Sangl%C3%A1y |title=Chinese elements in the Tagalog language |publisher=Filipiniana Publications |year=1948 |location=Manila |pages=50}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|text=Throughout these islands they call the Chinese 'Sangleyes', meaning 'a people who come and go,' on account of their habit of coming annually to these islands to trade, or, as they say there, 'the regular port'.|author=[[Francisco de Sande]]|source=Relacion y Descripciones de las Islas Filipinas ("Relation and Description of the Filipinas Islands", circa 1576)}}
The majority of Chinese sojourners, traders, and settlers in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period came from southern Fujian and spoke Hokkien, leaving their mark on Filipino culture (especially the [[Filipino cuisine|cuisine]]). Although ''mestizo de sangley'' literally means "mixed-race (person) of business," it implies a "mixed-race (person) of Chinese and indigenous/Indio (Filipino) descent" because many early Chinese immigrants were traders and intermixed with the local population. Outside the Philippines, the Spanish word ''mestizo'' (without the qualifying ''de sangley'') is normally used to refer to persons of mixed European and non-European ancestry, but the lower number of European mestizos in the Philippines made the term ''mestizo'' come to mean ''mestizo de sangley''. For example, Benito Legarda used this definition when talking to the [[United States]] Philippine Commission (1899–1900), citing [[Wenceslao Retana]]'s ''Diccionario de filipinismos'' (1921).<ref>{{cite book | title=Diccionario de filipinismos | publisher=Report of Philippine Commission | author=Retana, Wenceslao Emilio (Testimony of Benito Legarda) | year=1921 | location=New York and Paris | pages=127}}</ref> The term ''chino mestizo'' was also used interchangeably with ''mestizo de sangley''.
In 16th to 19th century Spanish Philippines, the term ''mestizo de sangley'' differentiated ethnic Chinese from other types of island mestizos (such as those of mixed [[Austronesian peoples|Indio]] and [[Spanish settlement in the Philippines|Spanish]] ancestry, who were fewer in number. Their Indio ancestry (generally on the maternal side) made the Chinese mestizos be granted the legal status of colonial subjects of Spain, with certain rights and privileges denied to the pure-blooded Chinese immigrants (''sangleys'').
Today, ''[[Chinese Filipino|Tsinoy]]'' or ''[[Chinese Filipino|Chinoy]]'' (from [[portmanteau]] of [[Filipino language|Filipino]] word ''Tsino'' or ''Chino'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and the [[Filipino language|Filipino]] word ''Pinoy'') is widely used in [[Filipino language|Filipino]]/[[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] and other [[Philippine languages]] to describe a ''Sangley'', a person born of pure or majority ethnic [[Han Chinese]] descent or of mixed [[Ethnic groups in the Philippines#Native ethnolinguistic nations|native Filipino]] and Han Chinese ancestry or a person with likewise similar features.
==Background==
[[File:Jose Rizal full.jpg|thumb|[[José Rizal]], the [[National hero of the Philippines|Philippine National Hero]], was a ''mestizo de sangley'' but also had other ancestry.]]
''Mestizo de sangley'' is a term that arose during Spanish colonization of the Philippines, where circumstances were different from colonial settlement of the Americas. During the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]] of the 16th and 17th centuries, numerous male Spaniards (''[[conquistador]]s'', explorers, missionaries, and soldiers) settled there. For decades most Spanish men made liaisons and intermarried with [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] women; their children were considered [[mixed race]] and were called ''mestizo''.
Male Chinese traders and workers came during the colonial period, most of whom intermarried with native women. The Spanish government classified the anyone who had ancestry from China as ''Sangley'' regardless of their ethnic makeup. Their mixed-race descendants with native women were classified as ''Mestizo de sangley''; they were also known as ''chino mestizos''.
As an example, in the late 19th century, the author and activist [[José Rizal]] was classified as ''mestizo de sangley'' due to his partial Chinese ancestry. But he also had indigenous, Japanese, and Spanish ancestors, and he asked to be classified as ''Indio''.<ref name="a112">{{cite web |url=http://www.bulatlat.com/news/7-4/7-4-semantics.htm |title= Semantics of Colonization and Revolution |first= Rosalinda N. |last=Olsen |publisher=bulatlat.com |access-date=January 8, 2011}}</ref>
== History ==
[[File:Sangelys, detail from Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas (1734).jpg|thumb|Sangleys as depicted in the ''[[Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas]]'' (1734)|300px]]
[[File:Mestizos Sangley y Chino by Justiano Asuncion.jpg|thumb|''Mestizos Sangley y Chino'' ([[Chinese Filipino|Sangley Chinese and/or Chinese Mestizos]]), {{circa|1841}} ''[[Tipos del País]]'', watercolor by [[Justiniano Asuncion]]|300px]]
Spanish explorers and conquistadors landed in ''[[Spanish East Indies|Las Islas de Filipinas]]'', which they named in honor of [[Philip II of Spain]]. The Spanish colonization of the Philippines required more skilled laborers and they recruited Chinese immigrants. The economy became highly dependent upon the Chinese for their economic role as traders and artisans. Most of the Chinese living in the Manila area settled in a place called the Parían near [[Intramuros]].
The Spanish encouraged those China traders to convert to Catholicism. Many of the Chinese men married native women, and over time the multi-cultural ''mestizo de sangley'' [[caste]] developed. Although the colonial government never required them to adopt Spanish surnames, in many cases they chose to change their Chinese names. They adopted names such as Jalandoni, Laurel, Lopez, Osmeña, Palanca, Paterno, Rizal, etc., or used transliteration and Spanish phonetic spelling to make them appear Hispanic by [[concatenation]], for example: Asico, Biazon, Chanco, Cojuangco, Cuyangkeng, Goquilay, Lacson, Landicho, Laoinco, Locsin, Ongpin, Quebengco, Sylianco, Tanbengco, Tanchanco, Tanjuatco, Tetangco, Tiongson, Tuazon, Yaptinchay, Yuchenco, Yuchengco, Yupangco, etc.
== Economy ==
[[File:Chino y Indio by José Honorato Lozano.jpg|thumb|A native Filipino trades with a Sangley vendor]]
[[File:Tipos del País Scene by José Honorato Lozano.jpg|thumb|Sangley vendor among other local vendors]]
Most of the ''sangleys'' worked as skilled artisans or traders. Aside from shopkeeping, the ''sangleys'' earned their livelihood as carpenters, tailors, cobblers, locksmiths, masons, metalsmiths, weavers, bakers, carvers and other skilled craftsmen. As metalsmiths, they helped to build the Spanish galleons in shipyards located in [[Cavite]]. As masons, they built ''Intramuros'' and its numerous structures.
[[File:Chino Chanchaulero by José Honorato Lozano.jpg|thumb|''Chino Chanchaulero'' by [[José Honorato Lozano]]|alt=]]
The Spanish gave the ''mestizos de sangley'' special rights and privileges as colonial subjects of the Spanish Crown and as baptized converts to the Catholic Church. They were given preference to handle the domestic trade of the islands. In addition, they were allowed to lease land from the friar estates through the ''inquilino'' or lessee system, that allowed them to sublet those lands.
Later, the ''mestizos de sangley'' came to acquire many native lands, chiefly through a legal instrument called ''pacto de retro'' or contract of retrocession. Through this instrument, a [[moneylender]] extended loans to farmers, who in exchange for cash, pawned their land with the option of buying it back. In the event of default, the moneylender recovered the loan by foreclosing on the land from the farmer. Many local farmers lost their lands to ''mestizos de sangley'' in this manner.
The [[Manila galleon|Spanish Galleon Trade]] (1565–1815) tied China to Europe via Manila and [[Acapulco, Mexico]]. Acting as a transshipment port, Manila attracted Chinese traders from [[Xiamen]] (Amoy); they traveled in armed ships to trade with the Spanish. Chinese luxury goods, such as [[silk]], [[porcelain]] and finely crafted furniture, were exchanged for [[silver]] from Mexican and Peruvian mines. Twice a year the galleons sailed across the [[Pacific Ocean]] from Manila to Acapulco and back. The goods were later shipped to Spain via [[Veracruz, Veracruz|Veracruz]], a [[Gulf of Mexico|Gulf Coast]] port on the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] side of Mexico.
[[File:Chino Corredor by José Honorato Lozano.jpg|thumb|''Chino Corredor'' (Chinese Runner/Deliveryman) by [[José Honorato Lozano]]]]
As the Spanish galleons carried mostly Chinese luxury goods destined for Europe, Mexicans called them ''náos de China'' (Chinese ships). The Spanish galleon trade was mainly a business affair involving Spanish officials in Manila, Mexico and Spain, and Chinese traders from Xiamen. The highly lucrative galleon trade carried few products originating from the Philippine islands or involving resident domestic traders. The trade was so profitable that Mexican silver became an unofficial currency of Southern China; an estimated one-third of silver mined from the Americas flowed into China during that period. The Spanish galleons also transported Filipino crew and militia men to the Americas, among which were many Sangleys; Some of them chose to settle in Mexico, [[Louisiana]], and parts of present United States, specially [[California]]. Americans called these immigrants ''Manilamen'' and the Mexicans called them ''los indios Chinos.''
Apart from the Portuguese-controlled [[Portuguese Macau|Macao]]-Manila trade in the 17th century and the British-controlled [[Chennai|Madras]]-Manila trade in the 18th century, it was chiefly the Spanish-controlled Manila-Acapulco trade that sustained the colony for much of the period. When the trade ended with the last ship's sailing in 1815, the Spaniards needed new sources of revenue. With the [[Spanish American wars of independence]] resulting in the loss of Spain's colonies in the Americas, the Spanish government quickly lost its position of pre-eminence amongst the [[Western world|Western powers]].
After losing [[Mexico]] when it became independent in 1821, Spain took over direct control of the Philippines. It had been governed by the ''Virreinato de Nueva España'' or Viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico) during much of the colonial period. Coinciding with the advent of [[steamships]] and the consequent expansion of the global economy, the Spaniards decided to open up the Philippines to foreign trade. They appointed Governor-General [[Basco y Vargas]], who was instrumental in establishing the [[tobacco]] monopoly in the Philippines, though with much help from other Spanish interests and reliance on Filipino local elites, called the ''principalía.''<ref name="cruikshank">{{Cite journal |last=Cruikshank |first=Bruce |date=1982 |title=Review of The Tobacco Monopoly in the Philippines: Bureaucratic Enterprise and Social Change, 1776-1880 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=880–882 |doi=10.2307/2055499 |jstor=2055499|s2cid=162600587 }}</ref>
As the subsistence economy shifted to an export crop economy, for [[sugar]], [[abaca]] and tobacco, in 1834 the Spanish allowed both non-Spanish Westerners and Chinese immigrants to settle anywhere in the islands. The ''mestizos de sangley'' had been displaced from tobacco marketing as the Spanish established their monopoly.<ref name="cruikshank" /> Some wholesale and retail traders converted their capital into larger landholdings. They developed sugar [[plantations]] for the new export market, particularly in Central Luzon, and on the islands of [[Cebu]], [[Iloilo]] and [[Negros (island)|Negros]]. The ''mestizos de sangley'' took advantage of the rapid changes as the colonial economy was integrated into the markets of the Western world.
<!--DO NOT UNHIDE WITHOUT SOURCES PLEASE -- Many prominent ''mestizo de sangley'' families belonging to the landlord class acquired vast landholdings during this period.  Their holdings were second only to those of the Catholic [[religious orders]], who owned the most land in the Philippines.  As landholders, the ''mestizo sangleys'' acquired more power than they had in their economic role as colonial merchants of the  Spanish Colonial Period.  The middleman role became filled chiefly by new Chinese immigrant traders.  In the years to come, ''mestizo sangleys'' in the countryside developed a kind of feudal power.  After the [[Spanish–American War]], the ''mestizo'' elites exploited their landed status to integrate themselves into the colonial structure when the United States occupied the Philippines. They rose to take over much of the political control of the Philippine in the years under American rule.-->
From the late 18th century through much of the 19th century, the Spanish encouraged development of tobacco as another commodity crop, controlling it as a monopoly. Cultivation was concentrated in [[Cagayan]], where the Spanish relied on the principalía to have their workers produce and deliver the tobacco.<ref name="cruikshank" />
With the opening of the colony to foreign trade in 1834, Western merchants established import/export and financial companies in ''[[Binondo]]''. They partnered with Chinese wholesale/retail traders throughout the islands. The ''mestizos de sangley'' shifted to the export crop economy by developing and enlarging [[plantation]]s devoted to agricultural commodities.
The increase in the late 19th century of British and American commercial interests in Manila coincided with the British founding of a network of treaty port-cities in [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], [[Singapore]] and [[Shanghai]]. They also expanded the ''[[Nanyang (geographical region)|Nanyang]]'' trade, previously limited to [[Xiamen]], [[Quanzhou]] and [[Macao]].
In 1868, the United States and China signed the [[Treaty of Burlingame]], legalizing and liberalizing Chinese emigration, which had been illegal since the Ming dynasty. This led to a rapid increase in the population of [[Overseas Chinese]] traders in the Philippines. By the 1870s, the economic dominance of the British and American merchants and their Chinese trading partners was said by some observers to turn the Philippines into an "Anglo-Chinese Colony under the Spanish Flag".<ref name="b3">{{Cite book |last=De Jesus |first=Ed. C. |url={{Google books|plainurl=y|id=i1sKZ3A8YrYC|page=197|text=...softened the jibe that the Philippines was no more than "an Anglo-Chinese colony flying the Spanish flag."}} |title=The Tobacco Monopoly in the Philippines: Bureaucratic Enterprise and Social Change, 1776–1880 |date=1980 |publisher=Ateneo de Manila University Press |location=Quezon City |page=197}}</ref>
== Politics ==
[[File:Ming2.jpg|alt=|thumb|315x315px|Another Sangley couple in ''[[Boxer Codex]] c. 1590.'']]
[[File:Chino Comerciante & India de Manila by José Honorato Lozano.jpg|thumb|Sangley Chinese Merchant & Native Filipina of Manila by [[José Honorato Lozano]]|300x300px]]The Spanish authorities had initially depended upon the ''sangleys'' to both supply the labor and manage the colonial economy of the islands. However, after the attacks of the Chinese pirate Limahong, the Spanish colonists viewed the ''sangleys'' differently, fearing them as enemy aliens who posed a security threat due to their number. To protect their precarious position, the Spaniards enacted policies designed to control the residents of the islands by means of racial segregation and cultural assimilation, such as limiting the number of resident ''sangleys'' to around 6,000, a measure that was proved soon impossible to maintain.
The Spanish founded the ''Parían'' in 1581 in what became [[Manila]] as the official marketplace and designated residence for the ''sangleys'' who did not convert to Catholicism. Circumventing a royal decree outlawing the ''sangleys'', as governor-general of the Philippines, [[Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas]] created [[Binondo]] in 1594 for the Catholic ''sangleys'' and their ''indio'' wives and their ''mestizos de sangley'' children and descendants. He gave the ''sangleys'' and ''mestizo de sangleys'' a land grant in perpetuity. They were allowed to establish a self-governing organization, called ''Gremio de Mestizos de Binondo'' (Guild of Mestizos of Binondo).
The Spanish colonists attempted to assimilate the ''sangleys'' into the Hispanic culture and converted many to [[Catholicism]]. They allowed Catholic ''sangleys'' to intermarry with ''indio'' women. They did not recognize marriages of the unconverted ''sangleys'', as they did not officially sanction marriages among subjects that were performed outside the Catholic Church.[[File:Chinese mestizo costume.jpg|thumb|French Illustration of a [[Chinese Filipino|Chinese-Filipino]] mestizo couple, c.1846 by Jean Mallat de Bassilan|alt=]]Beginning in 1600, the first generation of ''mestizos de sangley'' formed a small community of several hundred in Binondo. This is where [[San Lorenzo Ruiz]] grew up in the early 1600s. He was martyred under torture in Japan with three [[missionaries]]; none would recant their Christian beliefs. Long venerated in the Philippines, he later was beatified by the [[Catholic Church]] and canonized in 1987 as the first Filipino [[saint]].
During the 17th century, the Spaniards carried out four great massacres and expulsions against the unconverted ''sangleys,'' usually generated from real or imagined fears of an imminent invasion from China. In the aftermath, many ''sangleys'' converted at least nominally to Catholicism, adopted Hispanicized names, and intermarried with ''indio'' women.
Contemporary 21st century historians have studied demographic and social changes in the Philippines during this period. They note the changes in how ''mestizo de sangley'' fared in Philippine society. In the late 18th century, the ''mestizo de sangley'' began to markedly improved their position. After the violence and turmoil of the Spanish expulsion of Chinese-Filipino population for having sided with the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] in their [[Battle of Manila (1762)|1762 capture of Manila]],
{{quote|mestizo economic power increased in conjunction with its social and political clout. The formation of auxiliary units called ''Real Princípe'' in Tondo mirrored these trends.  Spanish military commanders publicly expressed a preference for mestizo regiments over native militias, enraging Filipino indio elites and requiring a deft negotiation of the political realities in Manila.|<ref name="aha.confex.com">[http://aha.confex.com/aha/2010/webprogram/Paper3370.html Edward Slack, "Arming Chinese Mestizos in Manila: The Regimiento de Mestizos "Real Príncipe" of Tondo during the Late Eighteenth Century", Paper to be given 10 Jan 2010, American Historical Association Conference, accessed 16 Dec 2009]</ref>}}
The founding of Chinese mestizo regiments in the Philippines was part of [[New Spain]]'s military modernization during the [[Bourbon Reforms|reformist Bourbon era]]. At the same time, New Spain created a colonial militia in Latin America, also enrolling ''mestizos'' there. While the colonies developed in distinct ways, there were similarities in the rise of the ''mestizo'' classes in Latin American and the Philippines. When colonial authorities accepted them into the militias and armed them, it was in recognition of their rising social position and integration into the colonial economies.<ref name="aha.confex.com" />
After the Spanish colonists abolished the ''Parían'' in 1790, they allowed the ''sangleys'' to settle in Binondo. In the 19th century, the population of ''mestizos de sangley'' grew rapidly over the years as more Chinese male immigrants arrived, converted to Catholicism, settled in Binondo and intermarried with ''indio'' or ''mestizo de sangley'' women. With no legal restrictions on their movement, ''mestizos de sangley'' migrated to other areas in the course of work and business, such as [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]], [[Bulacan]], [[Pampanga]], [[Bataan]], [[Cavite]], [[Cebu]], [[Iloilo]], [[Samar]], [[Capiz]], etc. The number of unconverted ''sangleys'' dropped from a high of 25,000 prior to the first great massacre of 1603 to below 10,000 by 1850.
From the 18th century until the latter half of the 19th century, Spanish authorities came to depend upon the ''mestizos de sangley'' as the ''[[bourgeoisie]]'' of the colonial economy. From their concentration in Binondo, Manila, the ''mestizos de sangley'' migrated to Central Luzon, Cebu, Iloilo, Negros and Cavite to handle the domestic trade of the islands. From trading, they branched out into landleasing, moneylending and later landholding. With wealth, they gained the ability to give their children elite education at the best schools in the islands and later in Europe.
Following the promulgation of the [[Cádiz Constitution|Cádiz Constitution of 1812]], the Philippines was granted the status of a Spanish province, with representation in the [[Spanish Cortes]]. These subjects were granted Spanish citizenship, thus acquiring legal equality in the Philippines with Spanish-born Spaniards. Toward the end of Spanish rule in the 19th century, the ''mestizos de sangley'' identified as [[Filipino people|Filipinos]], showing their identification with these islands.
Also identifying as the "true sons of Spain", the ''mestizos de sangley'' tended to side with the white Spanish colonists during the numerous ''indio'' revolts against Spanish rule. In the late 19th century, [[José Rizal]], a fifth-generation ''mestizo de sangley'', arose as an intellectual from the relatively wealthy, middle-class, Spanish-educated Filipinos known as ''Ilustrados''. He was among those who called for reforms in the administration of the colony, integration as a province of Spain, and political representation for the Philippines in the Spanish Cortes.
== Culture ==
[[File:A Scene In Town by José Honorato Lozano.jpg|alt=|thumb|270x270px|''A Scene In Town'' (w/ [[Chinese Filipino|Sangley & Chinese Mestizos]]), c. 1847 ''Tipos del País'' ''Watercolor'' by [[José Honorato Lozano]]]]
[[File:Chino Pansitero by José Honorato Lozano.jpg|thumb|''Chino Pansitero''(Chinese [[Pancit]] Vendor) by [[José Honorato Lozano]]|270x270px]]
From the beginning of the colonial period in the Philippines, the Spanish administration had the goal of converting natives to [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]]. [[Missionary|Missionaries]] were among the Spanish settlers in the colony. With the help of the colonial government, religious orders built traditional stone-and-brick churches throughout the islands in the Spanish or Mexican Baroque style. Constructed within the walled-city of [[Intramuros]], [[San Agustin Church, Manila|San Agustin Church]] was the first stone church built in the archipelago. It became the spiritual center of Christianity in the Philippines, and also in Asia. The remains of [[Miguel López de Legazpi]], [[Juan de Salcedo]] and [[Martín de Goiti]] (who was killed during Limahong's siege) were interred in that church. The church was sacked during the [[Battle of Manila (1762)|Battle of Manila]] in 1762, before being rebuilt in 1854.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Torres |first=Jose Victor Z. |title=Ciudad Murada: A Walk Through Historic Intramuros |date=2005 |publisher=Intramuros Administration & [[Vibal Publishing House, Inc.]] |isbn=971-07-2276-X |location=Manila |pages=62–63}}</ref>
The Spanish colonial government established schools and colleges run mostly by religious orders, including the [[Colegio de San Juan de Letran]], the [[Ateneo de Manila University|Ateneo Municipal]], the [[University of Santo Tomas|Universidad de Santo Tomás]] in Manila, or the [[University of San Carlos|Colegio de San Ildefonso]] in Cebu, <!--When were these institutions established? Women were not likely to have been accepted in the early years? Chronology is vague.-->that accepted all types of students, regardless of race, gender or financial status in the case of primary grade instruction.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}} In 1863, the Spanish government established a modern system of free public education, the first of its kind in Asia.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}}
Binondo served as the traditional center of community life for the Catholic ''sangleys'' and ''mestizos de sangley''. The ''Gremio de Mestizos de Binondo'' was the official guild chartered to administer community affairs. Born in Binondo, [[San Lorenzo Ruiz]] was a ''mestizo de sangley'' who served as an altar boy in the Binondo Church (which has since been named after him). Established by the Spanish Dominicans for Catholic ''sangleys'', the Binondo Church is now known as the [[Minor Basilica of San Lorenzo Ruiz]]. It became the center site for the religious rites of the community. The Catholic ''mestizos de sangley'' expressed religious devotion with processions marking important occasions, such as the Feast of La Naval de Manila, commemorating the naval victory of the Spanish over the Dutch off Manila Bay in 1646.
[[File:Chinese latik maker. Image from page 104 of "The Philippine Islands" (1899).jpg|thumb|Sangley Chinese [[latik]] maker (1899)]]
In the late 19th century, cosmopolitan [[mercantilism]] emerged in Binondo, at the same time that Western and [[overseas Chinese]] merchants entered the island's economy, which was being integrated into the global trading system. The Spaniards tended to be more isolated from the new urban environment. They lived in [[Intramuros]], where Hispanic Catholicism dominated the walled city. The rapid urbanization elsewhere transformed the [[ethnic enclave]] of Binondo into a thriving commercial district within an expanding urban core. The overseas Chinese ([[traditional Chinese characters|traditional Chinese]]: 華僑; [[pinyin]]: Huáqiáo) merchants essentially displaced the ''mestizos de sangley'' from their role as the domestic traders of the islands. Although officially under Spanish rule, cosmopolitan Binondo became the semi-official capital of an "Anglo-Chinese colony" in the late 19th-century Philippines.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}}
Chinese-Filipino merchants dominated the textile industry in Molo and Jaro. Iloilo produced ''sinamay'', a hand-woven cloth made from fine ''[[abaca]]'' threads, which was used for the casual ''camisa de chino''; ''jusi'' (Chinese term for raw [[silk]]), a translucent fabric woven from silk yarn for the formal ''barong tagalog''; and ''piña'', a handwoven fabric made of [[pineapple]] fiber for heirloom garments. During the late 19th century, the ''mestizos de sangley'' wore embroidered ''barong tagalog'' while ''indios'' wore multicolored ''camisa de chino''. As a means of maintaining social stratification, the Spanish prohibited the ''indios'' from wearing European-style clothing, as a means of separating the groups.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}}
In food, Chinese-Filipinos adapted Hokkien food from [[Fujian]]. They used indigenous ingredients and Spanish names to improvise what became part of an evolving creole Filipino cuisine. During the 19th century, noodle shops called ''panciterias'' serving ''comida China'' (Chinese food) dotted the islands. The ubiquitous ''pancit'' (meaning "[[noodle]]" from the Hokkien word ''pian-e-sit'') became ''pancit luglog'' and ''lomi'' (flavored with sauce); ''mami'' (served with broth); ''pancit molo'' (cooked as pasta) and ''pancit Malabon'' (mixed with [[seafood]]). The Chinese brought their use of [[rice]] as a staple (and wet-rice agriculture). One result was the local rice porridge called ''arroz caldo''. Other well-known Filipino dishes such as ''lumpia'' (egg-roll), ''maki'' (soup dish), ''kiampong'' (fried rice) and ''ma-chang'' (sticky rice,) among others, trace their origins to the Chinese immigrants.
In [[Vigan, Ilocos Sur]], known as ''kasanglayan'' (meaning "where sangleys live"), prosperous Chinese-Filipino merchants built stone-and-wood houses (really brick and wood) called ''[[bahay na bato]]''. These followed some of the tradition of Malay village houses-on-stilts, called ''bahay kubo'', but instead of using [[bamboo]] and thatch, they used ''molave''-wood structural beams to frame the two-story house. Walls were formed of brick coated with plaster. Sliding window panels made with translucent [[Windowpane oyster|''capiz'' shells]], in latticework patterns, enclosed the [[Capiz shell window|typically large horizontal windows]]. On the outside, sliding wooden shutters could cover the windows for another layer of privacy and ventilation control. This area has been designated as an historic district.
In contrast to the typical stone-and-brick Spanish colonial houses, this style of residence was better suited to the tropical environment of the islands. It was more flexible, so could better withstand frequent [[earthquake]]s. The steep roofs with overhanging eaves provided shelter against rain and storms, and added to the sense of openness and space connecting the interior and exterior. These helped shield residents from seasonal [[monsoon]]s. During less severe rain and in the hot summers, the sliding windows could be opened to allow greater circulation of air and more light into the house. When illuminated at night, such houses resemble giant Chinese lanterns. The stone/brick-and-wood house became so widespread throughout the islands that this Chinese-Filipino merchant's house came to be known as the "colonial Filipino" style.
The ''mestizos de sangley'' synthesized a hybrid culture incorporating Hispanic and European influences with both indigenous and Asian elements. In fashion, cuisine, design and architecture, a distinctive style emerged, especially among the wealthier segment. As the ''sangley'' prospered from trading, they built the first and in many cases the only stone-and-wood houses in the countryside. Like other rising elites, they created forms of [[conspicuous consumption]] to signify their status. The ''mestizos de sangley'' held feasts to commemorate baptisms, weddings, funerals and processions. As the 19th century drew to a close, the colonial Spanish empire in the Philippines was defeated by the rising Western empire of the United States following the [[Spanish–American War]].
Following the war, the United States took possession of the Philippines and influenced its culture in turn. The Filipinos, including the ''mestizos de sangley'', were referred to as "little brown Americans".{{citation needed|date=May 2017}} The Philippines was made a protectorate in relation to the United States, with the residents given special status but not U.S. citizenship at the time.<ref name="a51">{{Cite web |last=Reyes |first=Bobby |date=May 14, 2007 |title=How Filipinos Came to Be Called as "Brown Americans" |url=http://www.mabuhayradio.com/history/how-filipinos-came-to-be-called-as-brown-americans |access-date=January 8, 2011 |website=Mabuhay Radio!}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Binondo]]
* [[Cambodian Hokkien]]
* [[Chinese Filipino]]
* [[Criollo people]]
* [[Filipino mestizo]]
* [[Hoklo Americans|Hokkien and Hoklo Americans]]
* [[Japanese settlement in the Philippines]]
* [[Mestizo]]
* [[Nanyang (region)]]
* [[Peranakan]] of Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia, and Thailand
== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
== Further reading ==
<!-- Keep list alphabetized by authors' last names. -->
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081003035607/http://www.public-conversations.org.za/_pdfs/anderson_12.pdf Anderson, Benedict. (1988) ''Cacique Democracy in the Philippines: Origins and Dreams'']
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=SdMMBza_e38C&q=Austin+Craig Craig, Austin. (2004). ''Lineage, Life and Labors of Jose Rizal, Philippine Patriot''], [[Whitefish, Montana]]: Kessinger Publishing
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927092857/http://www.seacex.es/documentos/imag_colonial_13_identidad.pdf (2006) "The Colonial Imaginary. Photography in the Philippines during the Spanish Period 1860–1898"], ''Casa Asia: Centro Cultural Conde Duque''. Madrid, Spain.
* [https://www.fulltextarchive.com/page/History-of-the-Philippine-Islands-Vols-1-and1/ de Morga, Dr. Antonio. ''History of the Philippine Islands'', Vols. 1 and 2] (1609/1907), (Translated and Annotated in English), Ed. E.H. Blair and J.A. Robertson, J.A. (editors). Cleveland, Ohio: The Arthur H. Clark Company
* Gambe, Annabelle R. (2000) ''Overseas Chinese Entrepreneurship and Capitalist Development in Southeast Asia''. Münster, Hamburg and Berlin: LIT Verlag.
* Klöter, Henning. (2011) ''[http://www.brill.nl/language-sangleys The Language of the Sangleys: A Chinese Vernacular in Missionary Sources of the Seventeenth Century] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519061809/http://www.brill.nl/language-sangleys |date=May 19, 2012 }}.'' [[Leiden]], [[South Holland]]: [[Brill Publishers|Brill]]. {{ISBN|9004184937}}; {{ISBN|9789004184930}}.
* [http://www.xeniaeditrice.it/lens.pdf Medina, Elizabeth. (1999) ''Thru the Lens of Latin America: A Wide-Angle View of the Philippine Colonial Experience''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070209232520/http://xeniaeditrice.it/lens.pdf |date=February 9, 2007 }}, Santiago, Chile
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050113113932/http://www.analitica.com/bitblio/emily_monroy/race_mixing.asp Monroy, Emily. (23 August 2002) "Race Mixing and Westernization in Latin America and the Philippines"], ''Analitica''. Caracas, Venezuela.
* [https://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/502rev.pdf (1999) "The Historic Town of Vigan, Philippines"], ''Advisory Body Evaluation'', UNESCO World Heritage Site
* Tan, Hock Beng. (1994). ''Tropical Architecture and Interiors'', Singapore: Page One Publishing Pte Ltd.
* Tettoni, Luca Invernizzi and Sosrowardoyo, Tara. (1997). ''Filipino Style''. Hong Kong, China: Periplus Editions Ltd.
* Weightman, George H. (February 1960). ''The Philippine Chinese: A Cultural History of A Marginal Trading Company''. [[Ann Arbor]], Michigan: [[University of Michigan|UMI]] Dissertation Information Service.
* [http://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/bitstream/1808/1129/1/CEAS.1964.n10.pdf Wickberg, Edgar. (March 1964) "The Chinese Mestizo in Philippine History"], ''The Journal of Southeast Asian History, 5(1)'', 62–100. Lawrence, Kansas: The University of Kansas, CEAS.
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{{Miscegenation in Spanish Philippines}}
{{Han subgroups}}
{{Overseas Chinese}}
[[Category:Chinese diaspora in the Philippines]]
[[Category:Ethnonyms]]
[[Category:History of the Philippines (1565–1898)]]