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{{short description|Medieval cultural group from what is now Northern Germany}}
{{About|the historical Saxons of northern Germany|other uses|Saxons (disambiguation)|and|Anglo-Saxon (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Saxons
| native_name      = {{lang|osx|Sahson}}
| image            = File:Saxony_locator_map_(1000).svg
| image_caption    = The Stem Duchy of Saxony
| population       =
| genealogy        =
| regions          = [[Old Saxony]], [[Frisia]], [[Anglo-Saxon England|England]], [[Normandy]]
| languages        = [[Old Saxon]], [[Old English]]
| religions        = Originally [[Germanic paganism|Germanic]] and [[Anglo-Saxon paganism]], later [[Christianity]]
| related_groups   = [[Anglo-Saxons]], [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]], [[Frisii]], [[Jutes]], [[Franks]]
| footnotes        =
}}
The '''Saxons''', sometimes called the '''Old Saxons''', were the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic people]] of "Old" Saxony ({{langx|la|Antiqua Saxonia}}) which became a [[Carolingian]] "[[stem duchy]]" in 804, in what is now northern Germany.<ref>{{harvnb|Springer|2004|p=12}}: "{{Lang|de|Unter dem alten Sachsen ist das Gebiet zu verstehen, das seit der Zeit Karls des Großen (reg. 768–814) bis zum Jahre 1180 also Saxonia '(das Land) Sachsen' bezeichnet wurde oder wenigstens so genannt werden konnte.}}"</ref>
The political history of these inland Saxons, who were neighbours of the [[Franks]], is unclear until the 8th century and the conflict between their semi-legendary hero [[Widukind]] and the Frankish emperor [[Charlemagne]]. They do not appear to have been politically united until about that time. Previous Frankish rulers of [[Austrasia]], both [[Merovingian]] and [[Carolingian]], fought numerous campaigns against Saxons, both in the west near the Lippe, Ems and Weser, and further east, neighbouring [[Thuringia]] and [[Bohemia]]. Later medieval sources referred to this eastern area as "North Swabia". Charlemagne conquered all the Saxons after winning the long [[Saxon Wars]] (772–804), and forced them to convert to [[Christianity]], annexing Saxony into the Carolingian domain. Under the Carolingian Franks, Saxony became a single duchy, fitting it within the basic political structure of the later [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The early rulers of this [[Duchy of Saxony]] expanded their territories, and therefore those of the Holy Roman empire, to the east, at the expense of Slavic-speaking [[Wends]].
Before the entry of Saxony into Frankish history, there is possibly a single classical reference to a smaller and much earlier Saxon tribe, but the interpretation of this text ("Axones" in most surviving manuscripts) is disputed. According to this proposal, the original Saxon tribe lived north of the mouth of the [[Elbe]], close to the probable homeland of the [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]].{{Sfn|Springer|2004|pp=27-31}} What is more certain is that long before any clear historical mention of Saxony as a country, a related but possibly distinct or overlapping group of "Saxons" became important during the late [[Roman Empire]], when the name was used to refer to coastal raiders who attacked from the north by, in a similar sense to the much later term ''[[Viking]]''. These early raiders and settlers came from coastal regions north of the [[Rhine]]. They included [[Frisians]], [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]] and [[Jutes]], as well as people from the coastal part of what came to be called Saxony.
One of the first writers to mention a country called Saxony appears to have been an Ostrogothic geographer of Italy named Marcomir. The much later ''[[Ravenna Cosmography]]'' which reproduces some of his reports uses the term "Old Saxony" to refer to the continental homeland of the British Saxons whom the writer understood to have come from this Old Saxony with a leader named [[Oisc of Kent|Ansehis]]. It describes the lands of this Old Saxony as lying on the ocean coast, between Frisia and the Danes. It contained the rivers "Lamizon", "Ipada", "Lippa" and "Limac", which are generally interpreted as the [[Ems (river)|Ems]], [[Pader (river)|Pader]], [[Lippe (river)|Lippe]] and [[Leine]].
Today the Saxons of Germany no longer form a distinctive ethnic group or country, but their name lives on in the names of several regions and [[states of Germany]], including [[Lower Saxony]] ({{langx|de|Niedersachsen}}) which includes most of the original duchy. Their language evolved into [[Low German]] which was the ''lingua franca'' of the [[Hanseatic League]], but has faced a long and gradual decline since the Late Medieval period as a literary, administrative and, to a significant extent, cultural language in favor of [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[German language|German]].
==Relationship with early Anglo-Saxons==
The first Saxons clearly mentioned in ancient records were the "Saxons" who became important during the late [[Roman Empire]] as coastal raiders who attacked from the north using boats, in a similar sense to the much later term ''[[Viking]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Springer|2004|p=12}}: "{{Lang|de|Im Latein des späten Altertums konnte Saxones als Sammelbezeichnung von Küstenräubern gebraucht werden. Es spielte dieselbe Rolle wie viele Jahrhunderte später das Wort Wikinger.}}"</ref> These early raiders and settlers were believed by contemporaries to come from coastal regions north of the [[Rhine]]. They included [[Frisians]], [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]] and [[Jutes]], who stretched from what is now the Netherlands to what is now Denmark, as well as coastal parts of the territory which came to be called Saxony. It has been proposed that these coastal Saxons and the later Saxons of Carolingian times should be seen as distinct but related peoples, who were referred to by the same name, such as the [[Dutch people|Dutch]] and ''Deutschen'' ([[Germans]]) today.<ref>{{harvnb|Springer|2004b|p=33}}: "Engl. ''the Dutch'' heißt nicht "die Deutschen"; und engl. ''the Germans'' heißt nicht "die Germanen". ''Franci'' im Latein des Hoch- und Spät-MAs meinte die Franzosen und nicht die Franken usw. So war das lat. ''Saxones'' während der Völkerwanderungszeit und des Früh-MAs keineswegs auf "die" Sachsen festgelegt." [Some abbreviations expanded.]</ref>
Significant numbers of these early Saxons settled in what later became northern France and England. England, rather than Saxony, was sometimes written of as the Saxon homeland. To avoid confusion, already in the 8th century authors such as [[Bede]] sometimes referred to the Saxons of Saxony in Germany as the "old Saxons", and their country as "old Saxony", and this differentiation is still often used by historians today when discussing this period. In contrast, the settlers once called Saxons in England became part of a new [[Old English]]-speaking nation, now commonly referred to as the [[Anglo Saxon]]s, or simply "the English". This brought together local [[Romano-British]] populations, Saxons, and other migrants from the same North Sea region, including [[Frisians]], [[Jutes]], and [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]]. The Angles are the source of the term ''English'' which became the more commonly-used collective term. The term ''Anglo-Saxon'', combining the names of the Angles and the Saxons, came into use by the eighth century, initially in the work of [[Paul the Deacon]], to distinguish the Germanic-speaking inhabitants of Britain from continental Saxons. However, both the Saxons of Britain and those of Old Saxony in northern Germany long continued to be referred to as "Saxons" in an indiscriminate manner.
==Etymology==
[[File:Seax with replica.jpg|thumb|upright 1.3|The remains of a seax together with a reconstructed replica]]
The name of the Saxons has traditionally been said to derive from a kind of knife used in this period and called a {{Lang|ang|[[seax]]}} in Old English, and {{Lang|goh|sachs}} in [[Old High German]].<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/saxon|title= Saxon {{!}} Definition of Saxon in English by Oxford Dictionaries|website= Oxford Dictionaries {{!}} English|access-date= 2019-03-10}}{{dead link|date=September 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>{{oed | sax}}</ref>
During the first centuries of its use the term Saxon was associated with raiders and not associated with any clearly defined homeland, apart from the settlements of Saxons in what are now England and Normandy. It is only much later that the medieval records of the [[Frankish empire]] began to refer to a largely inland nation of Saxons in what is now northern Germany. Although it became convenient to refer to the English Saxons as either English or as Anglo-Saxons after this point, the term Saxon was still used to refer to them for some time, and can be a source of potential confusion when interpreting contemporary records.
==Possible mention in Ptolemy (2nd century AD)==
[[File:Roman Empire 125.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Map of the Roman Empire and contemporary indigenous Europe in 125{{nbsp}}AD, showing the location of the Saxons in Northern Germany, according to some copies of Ptolemy's work]]
[[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Geographia]]'', written in the second century, is sometimes considered to contain the first mention of the Saxons. Some copies of this text mention a tribe called ''Saxones'' in the area to the north of the lower [[Elbe]].<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Saxony}}</ref> However, other versions refer to the same tribe as ''Axones''. This may be a misspelling of the tribe that [[Tacitus]] in his ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'' called ''[[Aviones]]''. According to this theory, ''Saxones'' was the result of later scribes trying to correct a name that meant nothing to them.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Green |first1=D. H. |title=The Continental Saxons from the Migration Period to the Tenth Century: An Ethnographic Perspective |last2=Siegmund |first2=F. |date=2003 |publisher=[[Boydell Press]] |isbn=978-1-84383-026-9 |pages=14–15}}</ref> On the other hand, [[Gudmund Schütte|Schütte]], in his analysis of such problems in ''Ptolemy's Maps of Northern Europe'', believed that ''Saxones'' is correct. He notes that the loss of first letters occurs in numerous places in various copies of Ptolemy's work, and also that the manuscripts without ''Saxones'' are generally inferior overall.{{Sfn|Schütte|1917|pp=22–23}}
==Late Roman period (3rd-6th century AD)==
The first undisputed mentions of the Saxon name come from the late 4th century, around the time of emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]]. By about 400 the ''[[Notitia Dignitatum]]'' shows that the Romans had created several military commands specifically to defend against Saxon raiders. The {{Lang|la|Litus Saxonicum}} ('[[Saxon Shore]]'), was composed of nine forts stretching around the south-eastern corner of England. On the other side of the English channel two coastal military commands were created, over the ''Tractus Armoricanus'' in what is now Brittany and Normandy, and the coast of [[Belgica Secunda]] in what later became Flanders and Picardy. The ''Notitia Dignitatum'' also lists the existence of a Saxon military unit (an ''[[Ala (Roman allied military unit)|Ala]]'') in the Roman military, which was stationed in what is now Lebanon and northern Palestine. This {{lang|la|Ala primum Saxonum}} already existed by 363 when Julian used them in Arabia against the [[Sasanian Empire|Persian empire]]. Roman military accessories are found in northern Germany in the 4th and 5th centuries apparently indicating the return of soldiers who had served the empire.{{sfn|Springer|2004|page=45}} Several records mentioning the early Saxons can be dated:
*[[Eutropius (historian)|Eutropius the historian]], a contemporary and companion of Julian, claimed that Saxon and Frankish raiders had already attacked the North Sea coast near [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]] almost a century earlier in about 285, when [[Carausius]] was posted there to defend against them. Because the terms Saxon and Frank were well-known as the raiders of his time it is not certain whether the 3rd century raiders were also referred to this way.{{sfn|Springer|2004|p=33}} Contemporary records mention only Franks in this period.
*Julian himself mentioned the Saxons in a speech as close allies of [[Magnentius]] in 350 when he declared himself emperor in [[Gaul]]. Julian described the Saxons and Franks as kinsmen of Magnentius himself, living "beyond the Rhine and on the shores of the western sea".{{sfn|Springer|2004|page=34}}
*In 357/8 Julian clearly had contact with the Saxons himself when he campaigned in the Rhine region against [[Alemanni]], Franks and Saxons. Franks and Saxons entered the [[Meuse|Maas]] river area in what is now the Netherlands, and displaced the recently settled [[Salian Franks]] from [[Batavia (region)|Batavia]], whereupon some of the Salians began to move south into the region of [[Texandria]]. This Frankish settlement within the empire eventually gained the acceptance from Julian, but according to the near contemporary [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] the [[Chamavi]] who had also entered the area were ejected.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Haywood |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77MOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA42 |title=Dark Age Naval Power: A Re-Assessment of Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Seafaring ... |date=January 1991 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415063746 |page=42 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Writing about this period more than a century later, it was [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] who mentioned the involvement of the Saxons and even mentioned a specific tribe, called the ''Kouadoi'', which has been interpreted as a misunderstanding for the [[Chauci]] who had lived in this general region centuries earlier, or the [[Chamavi]], mentioned by Amminanus, who were however sometimes considered to be Franks. This implies that the term "Saxon" was probably not a clear ethnic distinction at this time, but perhaps rather designated those who attack by boat.{{sfn|Springer|2004|pages=35-36}}
*In 368, during the reign of [[Valentinian I]], Ammianus (books 26 and 27) reported that Britain was troubled by the [[Scoti]], two tribes of [[Picts]] (the [[Dicalydones]] and [[Verturiones]]), the [[Attacotti]] and the Saxons. [[Count Theodosius]], the father of the future emperor [[Theodosius I]] led a successful campaign to recover control in Britain. In an inscription preserved in [[Stobi]] in [[North Macedonia]] Theodosius was described as the terror of Saxony. This is the earliest known reference to a country of the Saxons apart from the disputed mention by Ptolemy, but it may refer to a part of Britain.{{sfn|Springer|2004|page=36}}
*In Gaul in 370 (Ammianus, books 28 and 30) the Saxons "overcoming the dangers of the Ocean advanced at rapid pace towards the Roman frontier" invading the maritime districts in Gaul. Valentinian's forces tricked and overwhelmed them, by a "device which was treacherous but expedient", "and stripped of their booty the robbers thus forcibly crushed had almost returned enriched with the spoils which they took".
*In 373 Saxons were defeated at a place called Deuso which was in Frankish, but not Roman territory. This was therefore probably an early mention of an inland force of Saxons.{{sfn|Springer|2004|pages=39-41}}
*Not long before the usurper emperor [[Magnus Maximus]] died in 388, according to [[Ambrose|Bishop Ambrose of Milan]], he was attacked by Franks and Saxons as divine retribution for his rebuilding of a synagogue burned down in Rome.{{sfn|Springer|2004|page=38}}
*In 393 Saxons died as gladiators in Rome.{{sfn|Springer|2004|page=38}}
*From 395 until 408 Stilicho was the most powerful military leader in the western Roman empire. Early in this period he is believed to have campaigned in Britain and northern Gaul, and to have reorganized the defences against the Saxons. Later in his career a series of crises in Italy, Gaul, Iberia and North Africa meant that military resources were not available for Britain.
*According to the ''[[Chronica Gallica of 452]]'', which was probably written in southern France, Britain was ravaged by Saxon invaders in 409 or 410. By this time, [[Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)|Constantine "III"]] was declared emperor in Britain and Gaul. He was killed in 411. The Romano-British citizens reportedly expelled their Roman officials during this period, and never again re-joined the Roman empire.{{sfn|Halsall |2013|page=13}} Writing in the mid-sixth century, [[Procopius]] states that after the overthrow of Constantine "III" in 411, "the Romans never succeeded in recovering Britain, but it remained from that time under tyrants."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dewing |first1=H B |title=Procopius: History of the Wars Books VII and VIII with an English Translation |date=1962 |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages=252–255 |url=https://eclass.uoa.gr/modules/document/file.php/SLAVSTUD182/Procopius%20Wars%20Books%20VII.36-VIII.pdf |access-date=1 March 2020 |archive-date=3 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303224542/https://eclass.uoa.gr/modules/document/file.php/SLAVSTUD182/Procopius%20Wars%20Books%20VII.36-VIII.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
In almost all of these cases the Saxons were associated with using boats for their raids, even within the Maas delta region. Special mentions of the fearful 4th-century Saxon surprise attacks were made not only by Ammianus, but also by the poet [[Claudian]].{{sfn|Springer|2004|page=37}} Some generations later a dramatic description of Saxon raiding was written by [[Sidonius Apollinaris]] writing to a friend who was assigned to a coastal defensive post in [[County of Saintonge|Saintonge]] near [[Bordeaux]]. A rough description of the homeland of these Saxons was given by [[Hilarion]] who says the Frankish homeland lay between the Saxons and [[Alemanni]].{{sfn|Springer|2004|page=39}}
In 441–442 AD, Saxons are mentioned in the ''[[Chronica Gallica of 452]]'' which says that the "British provinces, which to this time had suffered various defeats and misfortunes, are reduced to Saxon rule".<ref name="Koch2006">{{cite book |author=Koch |first=John T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&pg=PA59 |title=Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-85109-440-0 |page=59 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>{{sfn|Springer|2004|page=48}} Some generations later Gildas is generally seen as reporting what happened, although he gave no date. According to him, a Saxon force based in the east of Britain (Bede later believed in the [[Isle of Thanet]]) were invited as ''[[foederati]]'' to Britain, in order to help defend against raids by Picts and Scots. They revolted over their pay and plundered the whole country, initiating a long war. By the time of Gildas in the 6th century the [[Romano-British]] had recovered control of at least part of the country, but were now divided into corrupt "tyrannies". There are very few records of the period, but by the time of Bede in the 8th century most of England was ruled by Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.<ref>{{cite book |last=Halsall |first=Guy | author-link = Guy Halsall |title= Worlds of Arthur: Facts & Fictions of the Dark Ages|publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2013 |isbn=9780198700845 | url = https://archive.org/details/worldsofarthurfa0000hals/mode/2up | url-access=registration}}</ref>
In the 460s, an apparent fragment of a chronicle preserved in the [[Gregory of Tours#History of the Franks|''History of the Franks'']] of [[Gregory of Tours]], gives a confusing report about a number of battles involving one "[[Adovacrius]]" who led a group of Saxons based upon islands somewhere near the mouth of the [[Loire]]. He took hostages at [[Anger]] in France, but his force was subsequently retaken by Roman and Frankish forces led by [[Childeric I]]. A "great war was waged between the Saxons and the Romans but the Saxons, turning their backs, with the Romans pursuing, lost many of their men to the sword. Their islands were captured and ravaged by the Franks, many people being killed." Though there is no consensus, many historians believe that this Adovacrius may be the same person as [[Odoacer]], the future king of Italy, who is mentioned in the same part of Gregory's text as a person who subsequently allied with Childeric to fight Alemanni in Italy.{{sfn|Reynolds|Lopez|1946|p=45}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gregory of Tours |author-link=Gregory of Tours |title=History of the Franks |date=1974 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=9780140442953 |location=Harmondsworth, Middlesex}}</ref><ref>{{harv|Springer|2004|page=54}} "In der Tat gewinnt seit zwanzig Jahren die Meinung an Boden, dass es sich um ein und deselbe Persönlichkeit gehandelt habe."</ref>
==Saxons in Germany during the Merovingian period==
{{Also see|Old Saxony|List of rulers of Saxony#Independent Saxony}}
In comparison to mentions of the early Saxons raiders and settlers in Britain or Gaul, there are few mentions of the Saxons in Germany before the 8th century. Interpretation of the records is also complicated not only by the continuing references to the other Saxons, but also because the German Saxons possibly weren't originally unified within one Saxon political entity. It is therefore not clear whether some early continental "Saxons" could also sometimes have come under other designations such as [[Warini]], [[Frisians]] or [[Thuringians]]. Nevertheless some records during Merovingian times are clearly about Saxons living within what is now Northern Germany, north of the Franks.
*In about 531 the Franks, led by the eldest son of Clovis I, [[Theuderic I]] conquered the still independent kingdom of [[Thuringia]], which henceforth became a kingdom under Frankish overlordship. Centuries later, medieval writers claimed that the early Saxons had assisted the Franks, and even that they had been brought from England for this purpose, but no contemporary sources mention this, and historians doubt that there was any conflict between the Saxons and the Thuringian kingdom.{{sfn|Springer|2004|pages=60-96}}
*In 555, after the death of Theuderic's grandson [[Theudebald]], Theuderic's younger half-brother [[Clothar I]] (also spelled Lothar) inherited rule over the Rhine regions. It is reported by Gregory of Tours (IV.10) and [[Marius Aventicensis|Marius of Avenches]] that Saxons "revolted", and the new ruler Clothar led an army in 556 to ravage Saxony and Thuringia. Thuringia, both authors mention, had supported the Saxons.{{sfn|Springer|2004|pages=97-98}} In a possibly separate incident Gregory reports that Chlothar fought Saxons in 556 or 557 who had been stirred up by his own brother [[Childebert I]] to attack his territory, going as far as [[Deutz, Cologne|Deutz]] on the Rhine. (Springer argues against assuming that this was one incident, or involved one single group of Saxons, because Thuringia is quite far from Deutz.){{sfn|Springer|2004|pages=97-98}} Gregory of Tours (IV.14), pursuing an ethical topic which he is known for, reported that Chlothar was forced to fight by the Franks who did not want to negotiate, and that the Franks were subsequently beaten. However, later records indicate that a group of Saxons began paying tribute to the kings of Austrasia during Chlothar's reign.{{sfn|Springer|2004|pages=98-99}}
*[[Sigebert I]], the son of Clothar I who ruled Austrasia until 575, was praised by the poet [[Venantius Fortunatus]] for defeating the "Thuringian Saxons". (Springer suggests that this was his way of distinguishing the mainland Saxons from the Anglo-Saxons of Britain.){{sfn|Springer|2004|page=110}}
*In 612, Sigebert's grandson [[Theuderic II]] attacked his own brother [[Theudebert II]] at [[Zülpich]], with a force of Saxons, Thuringians, and other people from east of the Rhine.{{sfn|Springer|2004|page=111}}
*Heroic stories set in the 620s were written centuries later about Sigbert's nephew and eventual successor in Austrasia, [[Chlothar II]] and his defeat of Saxons led by [[Berthoald, Duke of Saxony|Berthoald]] near the [[Weser]], together with son Dagobert I.{{sfn|Springer|2004|pages=113-115}}
*In 632, [[Dagobert I]], son of Clothar II, and the most powerful king of the Franks at that time, was met by Saxon messengers in [[Mainz]] in a period of war with the [[Wends]] under [[Samo]], who were attacking Thuringia. These Saxons negotiated, or attempted to negotiate, the end of a tribute of 500 cows per year which they had been paying, in return for a promise to defend against the Wends at their own expense.{{sfn|Springer|2004|pages=111-113}}
There were also Saxon populations in this period who were living in neither England, nor what would become Saxony.
*In 568/9, some Saxons were living in the Austrasian kingdom of [[Sigebert II]], possibly in the Champagne region, and they accompanied the [[Lombards]] into Italy under the leadership of [[Alboin]] and settled there for some time. Sigebert in the meantime allowed a [[Suebi|Suevian]] group to replace them in Austrasia. In 572, they returned to Gaul from Italy, raiding south-eastern Gaul as far as ''Stablo'', now [[Estoublon]], and were defeated by the [[Gallo-Roman]] general [[Mummolus]]. They were allowed to return to Italy, gather their families and belongings and return to pass through the region again to go north. After once again plundering the countryside, they were stopped at the [[Rhône]] by Mummolus and forced to pay compensation for what they had robbed.{{Sfn|Bachrach|1971|p=39}} Upon arrival at their original home they were furious about the Suevian settlers, and refused to negotiate against them. Gregory of Tours, our main source for these events, claims that there was divine intervention, allowing the much smaller Suebian group to utterly defeat the Saxons in two battles.{{sfn|Springer|2004|pages=101-103}}
*One notable group lived on the Normandy coast, near [[Bayeux]]. In 589, the Saxons from the Bessin region near Bayeux wore their hair in the [[Bretons|Breton]] fashion at the orders of [[Fredegund]] and fought with them as allies against [[Guntram]].{{Sfn|Bachrach|1971|p=63}} Beginning in 626, the Saxons of the [[Bessin]] were used by [[Dagobert I]] for his campaigns against the [[Basques]]. In 843 and 846 under king [[Charles the Bald]], other official documents mention a ''[[pagus]]'' called ''Otlinga Saxonia'' in the Bessin region, but the meaning of ''Otlinga'' is unclear.
*In southwestern France, in the late 6th century Chulderic the Saxon became a Duke north of the [[Garonne]] for [[Childeric II]], after having previously been a subject of King [[Guntram]]. A century later, [[Aeghyna]], a ''[[Duke of Gascony]]'', died in 638.{{Sfn|Fredegar|1960|p=66}} Both men are likely to have been Bayeux Saxons, although they may for example have come from Britain.{{sfn|Springer|2004|page=111}}
== The Saxons and the Arnulfings ==
[[File:Saxe_primitive.JPG|thumb|right|The later [[stem duchy]] of Saxony ({{circa|1000&nbsp;AD}}), which was based in the Saxons' traditional homeland bounded by the rivers [[Ems River|Ems]], [[Eider (river)|Eider]] and [[Elbe]]]]
The continental Saxons appear to have become consolidated by the end of the eighth century, partly as a result of interaction with the powerful Frankish kingdoms. The ancestors of Charlemagne, the [[Arnulfing]]s, took control of the neighbouring Austrasian kingdom of the Franks and sought to assert power over the peoples to the east including not only the Bavarians, Swabians and Thuringians, which were long under Frankish rule, but also the Saxons and Frisians. They also pressured the Saxons and Frisians to convert to Christianity. In 804 the emperor [[Charlemagne]] conquered the Saxons, and incorporated the Saxons into the Frankish empire as a Stem Duchy, similar to the older ones although there is no evidence that it had previously been a single kingdom. The [[Duchy of Saxony]] (804–1296) covered Westphalia, Eastphalia, Angria and Nordalbingia, which is roughly equivalent to Holstein, the southern part of modern-day Schleswig-Holstein state, now bordering on Denmark.
*In the 690s, Bede reported that a people known as the ''Boructuari'' were invaded by the pagan Saxons during a period when the [[Suitbert of Kaiserswerth|Saint Suibert]], an Anglo-Saxon missionary bishop assigned to Frisia at that time, who was doing missionary work in the area. This was probably near Frisia, and the area is widely believed to correspond to the Roman-era [[Bructeri]], who lived had once lived near the [[Lippe]] river.
*From the same report of Bede about English missionaries in the 690s the [[Two Ewalds]] were killed somewhere in Saxony while trying to convert one of the "satraps" of Saxony. The Ewalds apparently had the support of this local ruler, and also [[Pepin of Herstal]] who was the effective ruler of Frankish Austrasia at this time.{{sfn|Springer|2004|pages=131-134}}
*In 715, not long after the death of Pepin of Herstal, Frankish annals report that Saxons took control of "''Hattuaria''". In later centuries this name was given to the Frankish country near [[Cleves]] and [[Xanten]], between Rhine and Maas, but the area involved in this takeover may have been on opposite side of the Rhine.{{sfn|Springer|2004|page=118}} It is named after a Roman era Frankish tribe, the [[Chattuarii]], who had once been the eastern neighbours of the Bructeri. [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] reported them to be living north of the Rhine in the 4th century.
*In 718, [[Charles Martel]], the son of Pepin, invaded Saxony as far as the [[Weser]]. He campaigned there again in 720, 724, 738, and possibly also in 722 and 728.{{sfn|Springer|2004|page=165}}
*In the 730s, Bede wrote his ''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People]]'', which mentions, for example, that the land of the Angles was once between those of the Saxons and Jutes, but was now empty.
*Also in about this period the ''[[Ravenna Cosmography]]'' was written which uses the same term "Old Saxony" to refer to the apparent continental homeland of the British Saxons who the writer understood to have came from this Old Saxony with their leader named [[Oisc of Kent|Ansehis]]. It describes the lands of the Saxons as lying on the Ocean coast between Frisia and the Danes. It also borders on Thuringia and contains the rivers "Lamizon", "Ipada", "Lippa" and "Limac" (generally interpreted as the [[Ems (river)|Ems]], [[Pader (river)|Pader]], [[Lippe]] and [[Leine]]). This work names its source as a Gothic geographer named Marcomir, who had written an earlier study of Saxony.
*In 743 two of the sons of Charles, [[Pepin the Short]] and [[Carloman, Mayor of the Palace|Carloman]], marched against [[Odilo of Bavaria]], who was nominally a Frankish subject. Carloman then turned north towards Saxony, or a part of it, which had sent troops to support Bavaria. After conquering the ''[[Castle|castrum]]'' of Ho(o)hseoburg forced the Saxon duke [[Theoderic, Duke of Saxony|Theoderic]] to surrender at a ''[[placitum]]'' held at that same place.<ref>''Annales Einhardi'' 743, MGH SS I, p. 135.</ref> The brothers [[Saxon Wars|invaded Saxony]] again the next year (744) and Theoderic was captured.<ref>RFA, 743 and 744, p. 38.</ref>
*In 748 Pepin the Short marched through Thuringia to Saxony, during a period when his half brother [[Grifo (noble)|Grifo]] was attempting seize power in Bavaria. The part of Saxony beyond Thuringia where he went is referred to in the [[Annals of Metz]] as "North Swabia" and many of the Saxons there converted to Christianity at this time. The continuation of the [[Chronicle of Fredegar]] claims that they accepted to return to go back to paying a tribute of 500 cows.{{sfn|Springer|2004|pages=171-173}}
*In 751 Pepin was crowned as king, and in 753 he attacked the Saxons northeast of the Rhine in the area of [[Bad Iburg]] and [[Bad Oeynhausen]].{{sfn|Springer|2004|pages=173-174}}
*In 758 Pepin attacked Saxony once more and agreed to a tribute of 330 horses per year from the defeated Saxons.{{sfn|Springer|2004|page=174}}
==Charlemagne's Saxon Wars==
{{Main|Saxon Wars}}
The Saxons were conquered by Charlemagne after a long series of annual campaigns, the [[Saxon Wars]] (772{{nsndns}}804). With defeat came enforced [[baptism]] and [[Religious conversion|conversion]] as well as the union of the Saxons with the rest of the Frankish empire. Their sacred tree or pillar, a symbol of [[Irminsul]], was destroyed. Charlemagne deported 10,000 [[Nordalbingia]]n Saxons to [[Neustria]] and gave their largely vacant lands in [[Wagria]] (approximately modern [[Plön]] and Ostholstein districts) to the loyal king of the [[Abotrites]]. [[Einhard]], Charlemagne's biographer, says on the closing of this grand conflict:
<blockquote>
The war that had lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to the terms offered by the king; which were renunciation of their national religious customs and the worship of devils, acceptance of the sacraments of the Christian faith and religion, and union with the Franks to form one people.
</blockquote>
The Saxons long resisted becoming [[Christianity|Christians]]<ref>"They are much given to devil worship," [[Einhard]] said, "and they are hostile to our religion," as when they martyred the [[Ewald (martyr)|Saints Ewald]].</ref> and being incorporated into the orbit of the [[Frankish kingdom]].<ref name="Lieberman2013"/> In 776 the Saxons promised to convert to Christianity and vow loyalty to the king, but, during Charlemagne's campaign in [[Hispania]] (778), the Saxons advanced to [[Cologne-Deutz|Deutz]] on the [[Rhine]] and plundered along the river. This was an oft-repeated pattern when Charlemagne was distracted by other matters.<ref name="Lieberman2013">{{cite book |author=Lieberman |first=Benjamin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgk6SV16fk8C&pg=PA53 |title=Remaking Identities: God, Nation, and Race in World History |date=22 March 2013 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=978-1-4422-1395-1 |page=53 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref>
==The Duchy of Saxony==
{{Also see|Duchy of Saxony|List of rulers of Saxony#Saxony as part of Frankish kingdom(s)}}
Under [[Carolingian dynasty|Carolingian rule]], the Saxons were reduced to tributary status. There is evidence that the Saxons, as well as Slavic tributaries such as the [[Abodrites]] and the [[Wends]], often provided troops to their Carolingian overlords. The dukes of Saxony became kings ([[Henry the Fowler|Henry I]], the Fowler, 919) and later the first emperors (Henry's son, [[Otto I, the Great]]) of Germany during the tenth century, but they lost this position in 1024. The duchy was divided in 1180 when Duke [[Henry the Lion]] refused to follow his cousin, Emperor [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]], into war in [[Lombardy]].
During the [[High Middle Ages]], under the [[Salian dynasty|Salian]] emperors and, later, under the [[Teutonic Knights]], German settlers moved east of the [[Saale]] into the area of a western Slavic tribe, the [[Sorbs]]. The Sorbs were gradually [[Germanisation|Germanised]]. This region subsequently acquired the name Saxony through political circumstances, though it was initially called the [[March of Meissen]]. The rulers of [[Meissen]] acquired control of the [[Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg]] (only a remnant of the previous Duchy) in 1423; they eventually applied the name ''Saxony'' to the whole of their kingdom. Since then, this part of eastern Germany has been referred to as [[Saxony]] ({{langx|de|Sachsen}}), a source of some misunderstanding about the original homeland of the Saxons, with a central part in the present-day German state of [[Lower Saxony]] ({{langx|de|Niedersachsen|links=no}}).
==Language==
Old English, associated with the Saxons in England, was closer to later recorded dialects of [[Old Frisian]] than the [[Old Saxon]] language. Old Frisian apparently once stretched along the North Sea coast from the northern [[Netherlands]] to southern [[Denmark]], while Old Saxon originally didn't extend to the coast. Linguists have noted that Old Frisian and Old Saxon, although neighbouring and related, did not form part of the same dialect continuum. In contrast, the Saxon dialects became part of the much larger [[Dialect_continuum#Continental_West_Germanic_continuum|Continental West Germanic continuum]] which stretched to the Alps, and can all be considered to be types of German.
According to the historical linguist [[Elmar Seebold]], this development can only be explained if continental Saxon society prior to the migration to Britain was effectively composed of two related, but different forms of West Germanic. In his view, the group of people who, in the [[3rd century]], first migrated southwards to what is now the northwestern portion of [[Lower Saxony]] spoke North Sea Germanic dialects closely related to [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Old Frisian and Old English]]. There, these migrants encountered an already present population whose language was significantly different from their own, i.e. belonging to the [[Weser–Rhine Germanic]] grouping, over whom they then formed an elite, lending their name to the subsequent tribal federation and region as a whole. Later, during the 5th century, as the Angles started migrating to Britain, the descendants of this elite joined them, while the descendants of the native inhabitants did not, or at least not significantly. As the languages of the Angles and this particular Saxon group were closely related, a continuum between Anglian and Saxon could form in Britain, which later became [[English language|English]]. In the land of the Saxons itself, the departure of a large part of this former elite caused the sociopolitical landscape to change, and the original population, after the departure of the majority of the elite's descendants, became so predominant that their dialects (presumably the language of the [[Chauci]], the language of the [[Thuringians]], and possibly other ancient tribes) prevailed and ultimately formed the basis for the [[Low Saxon|Low Saxon dialects]] known today, while their speakers retained the tribal name.<ref name="Seebold">{{Cite book |last=Seebold |first=Elmar |author-link=Elmar Seebold |title=Essays on the Early Franks |date=2003 |isbn=9789080739031 |location=Barkhuis |pages=24–29 |chapter=Die Herkunft der Franken, Friesen und Sachsen}}</ref>
{{Gallery
|title=Evolution of Saxon within North Sea Germanic according to Seebold:<ref name="Seebold"></ref>
|width=325 | height=325
|align=center
|footer=
|File:Evolution of North Sea Germanic (according to Seebold) Initial Saxon migration.png
| {{legend|lightblue|Position of North Sea Germanic dialects prior to the migration period (3rd century CE).}} {{legend|black|Migration of the Saxons from the territory of the Angles (A.).}}{{legend|darkorange|Migration of Weser Rhine Germanic speakers towards the Roman limes (1.), southward migration of Elbe Germanic speakers (2.).}}
|File:Evolution of North Sea Germanic (according to Seebold) Frisian and Anglo-Saxon migrations.png
|{{legend|lightblue|Position of North Sea Germanic dialects during the 5th and 6th century.}} {{legend|black|Migration of North Germanic speakers (including the Saxon elite) to England (A.) and Frisia (B.)}}{{legend|darkorange|Migration of Weser Rhine Germanic speakers (1.), migration of West Slavic speakers (2.), migration of North Germanic speakers (2.).}}
|File:The emergence of the modern Anglo-Frisian languages.png | {{legend|lightblue|Position of North Sea Germanic dialects (Old English & Old Frisian) directly following the migration period.}} {{legend|darkorange|Linguistic expansion of [[Old Frankish]] (1.) and [[Old Low German]] (2.).}}{{legend|black|10th/11th century migration of (Ems) Frisian speakers to the North German mainland (A.)}}
}}
==Culture==
===Social structure===
[[Bede]], a [[Northumbria]]n writing around the year 730, remarks that "the old (that is, the continental) Saxons have no king, but they are governed by several [[ealdormen]] (or ''[[satrap]]a'') who, during war, cast lots for leadership but who, in time of peace, are equal in power." The {{Lang|la|regnum Saxonum}} was divided into three provinces&nbsp;– [[Westphalia]], [[Eastphalia]] and [[Angria]]&nbsp;– which comprised about one hundred ''pagi'' or ''[[Gau (country subdivision)|Gaue]]''. Each ''Gau'' had its own satrap with enough military power to level whole villages that opposed him.{{Sfn|Goldberg|1995|p=473}}
In the mid-9th century, [[Nithard]] first described the social structure of the Saxons beneath their leaders. The caste structure was rigid; in the [[Old Saxon|Saxon language]] the three castes, excluding slaves, were called the {{Lang|osx|edhilingui}} (related to the term ''[[aetheling]]''), {{Lang|osx|frilingi}} and {{Lang|osx|lazzi}}. These terms were subsequently [[Latinisation of names|Latinised]] as {{Lang|la|nobiles}} or {{Lang|la|nobiliores}}; {{Lang|la|[[ingenui]]}}, {{Lang|la|ingenuiles}} or {{Lang|la|liberi}}; and {{Lang|la|liberti}}, {{Lang|la|liti}} or {{Lang|la|serviles}}.{{Sfn|Goldberg|1995|p=471}} According to very early traditions that are presumed to contain a good deal of historical truth, the {{Lang|osx|edhilingui}} were the descendants of the Saxons who led the tribe out of [[Holstein]] and during the migrations of the sixth century.{{Sfn|Goldberg|1995|p=471}} They were a conquering warrior elite. The ''{{Lang|osx|frilingi}}'' represented the descendants of the {{Lang|la|amicii}}, {{Lang|la|auxiliarii}} and {{Lang|la|manumissi}} of that caste. The {{Lang|osx|lazzi}} represented the descendants of the original inhabitants of the conquered territories, who were forced to make oaths of submission and pay tribute to the ''{{Lang|osx|edhilingui}}''.
The ''[[Lex Saxonum]]'' regulated the Saxons' different society. Intermarriage between the castes was forbidden by the Lex Saxonum, and [[wergild]]s were set based upon caste membership. The ''{{Lang|osx|edhilingui}}'' were worth 1,440 [[solidi]], or about 700 head of cattle, the highest wergild on the continent; the price of a bride was also very high. This was six times as much as that of the ''{{Lang|osx|frilingi}}'' and eight times as much as the ''{{Lang|osx|lazzi}}''. The gulf between noble and ignoble was very large, but the difference between a freeman and an indentured labourer was small.{{Sfn|Goldberg|1995|p=472}}
According to the {{Lang|la|Vita Lebuini antiqua}}, an important source for early Saxon history, the Saxons held an annual council at [[Marklo]] (Westphalia) where they "confirmed their laws, gave judgment on outstanding cases, and determined by common counsel whether they would go to war or be in peace that year."{{Sfn|Goldberg|1995|p=473}} All three castes participated in the general council; twelve representatives from each caste were sent from each ''Gau''. In 782, Charlemagne abolished the system of ''Gaue'' and replaced it with the {{Lang|de|Grafschaftsverfassung}}, the system of [[County|counties]] typical of [[Francia]].{{Sfn|Goldberg|1995|p=476}} By prohibiting the Marklo councils, Charlemagne pushed the ''{{Lang|osx|frilingi}}'' and ''{{Lang|osx|lazzi}}'' out of political power. The old Saxon system of {{Lang|de|Abgabengrundherrschaft}}, lordship based on dues and taxes, was replaced by a form of [[feudalism]] based on service and labour, personal relationships and oaths.{{Sfn|Goldberg|1995|p=479}}
===Religion===
====Germanic religion====
{{see also|Continental Germanic mythology}}
Saxon religious practices were closely related to their political practices. The annual councils of the entire tribe began with invocations of the gods. The procedure by which dukes were elected in wartime, by drawing lots, is presumed to have had religious significance, i.e. in giving trust to divine providence{{snd}}it seems{{snd}}to guide the random decision-making.{{Sfn|Goldberg|1995|p=474}} There were also sacred rituals and objects, such as the pillars called [[Irminsul]]; these were believed to connect heaven and earth, as with other examples of trees or ladders to heaven in numerous religions. [[Charlemagne]] had one such pillar chopped down in 772 close to the [[Eresburg]] stronghold.
Early Saxon religious practices in Britain can be gleaned from place names and the [[Germanic calendar]] in use at that time. The Germanic [[gods]] [[Woden]], [[Frigg]], [[Týr|Tiw]] and [[Thunor]], who are attested to in every Germanic tradition, were worshipped in Wessex, Sussex and Essex. They are the only ones directly attested to, though the names of the third and fourth months (March and April) of the [[Month#Old English calendar|Old English calendar]] bear the names {{Lang|ang|Hrēþmōnaþ}} and {{Lang|ang|Ēosturmōnaþ}}, meaning 'month of [[Hretha]]' and 'month of [[Ēostre]]'. It is presumed that these are the names of two goddesses who were worshipped around that season.{{Sfn|Stenton|1971|p=97–98}} The Saxons offered cakes to their gods in February ({{Lang|ang|Solmōnaþ}}). There was a religious festival associated with the harvest, {{Lang|ang|Halegmōnaþ}} ('holy month' or 'month of offerings', September).{{Sfn|Stenton|1971}}{{Page needed|date=June 2024}} The Saxon calendar began on 25 December, and the months of December and January were called [[Yule]] (or {{Lang|ang|Giuli}}). They contained a {{Lang|ang|Modra niht}} or 'night of the mothers', another religious festival of unknown content.
The Saxon freemen and servile class remained faithful to their original beliefs long after their nominal conversion to Christianity. Nursing a hatred of the upper class, which, with Frankish assistance, had marginalised them from political power, the lower classes (the {{Lang|la|plebeium vulgus}} or {{Lang|la|cives}}) were a problem for Christian authorities as late as 836. The {{Lang|la|Translatio S. Liborii}} remarks on their obstinacy in pagan {{Lang|la|ritus et superstitio}} ('usage and superstition').{{Sfn|Goldberg|1995|p=480}}
====Christianity====
[[File:Pictures of English History Plate V - Saint Augustine and the Saxons.jpg|thumb|right|1868 illustration of [[Augustine of Canterbury|Augustine]] addressing the Saxons]]
The conversion of the Saxons in England from their original [[Germanic paganism|Germanic religion]] to [[Christianity]] occurred in the early to late seventh century under the influence of the already converted [[Jutes]] of [[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]]. In the 630s, [[Birinus]] became the "apostle to the West Saxons" and converted [[Wessex]], whose first Christian king was [[Cynegils]]. The West Saxons begin to emerge from obscurity only with their conversion to Christianity and keeping written records. The [[Gewisse]], a West Saxon people, were especially resistant to Christianity; Birinus exercised more efforts against them and ultimately succeeded in conversion.{{Sfn|Stenton|1971|p=97–98}} In Wessex, [[Bishop of Winchester|a bishopric]] was founded at [[Dorchester, Oxfordshire|Dorchester]]. The South Saxons were first evangelised extensively under [[England|Anglian]] influence; [[Aethelwalh of Sussex]] was converted by [[Wulfhere of Mercia|Wulfhere]], [[King of Mercia]] and allowed [[Wilfrid]], [[Archbishop of York|Bishop of York]], to evangelise his people beginning in 681. The chief South Saxon bishopric was [[Bishop of Selsey|that of Selsey]]. The [[Kingdom of Essex|East Saxons]] were more pagan than the southern or western Saxons; their territory had a superabundance of pagan sites.{{Sfn|Stenton|1971|p=102}} Their king, [[Saebert of Essex|Saeberht]], was converted early and a diocese was established at [[Diocese of London|London]]. Its first bishop, [[Mellitus]], was expelled by Saeberht's heirs. The conversion of the East Saxons was completed under [[Cedd]] in the 650s and 660s.
The continental Saxons were evangelised largely by English missionaries in the late seventh and early eighth centuries. Around 695, two early English missionaries, [[Hewald the White]] and [[Hewald the Black]], were martyred by the {{Lang|la|vicani}}, that is, villagers.{{Sfn|Goldberg|1995|p=474}} Throughout the century that followed, villagers and other peasants proved to be the greatest opponents of [[Christianisation]], while missionaries often received the support of the ''{{Lang|osx|edhilingui}}'' and other noblemen. [[Saint Lebuin]], an Englishman who between 745 and 770 preached to the Saxons, mainly in the eastern Netherlands, built a church and made many friends among the nobility. Some of them rallied to save him from an angry mob at the annual council at Marklo (near river Weser, Bremen). Social tensions arose between the Christianity-sympathetic noblemen and the pagan lower castes, who were staunchly faithful to their traditional religion.{{Sfn|Goldberg|1995}}{{Page needed|date=June 2024}}
Under Charlemagne, the [[Saxon Wars]] had as their chief object the conversion and integration of the Saxons into the Frankish empire. Though much of the highest caste converted readily, forced baptisms and forced tithing made enemies of the lower orders. Even some contemporaries found the methods employed to win over the Saxons wanting, as this excerpt from a letter of [[Alcuin of York]] to his friend Meginfrid, written in 796, shows:
<blockquote>
If the light yoke and sweet burden of Christ were to be preached to the most obstinate people of the Saxons with as much determination as the payment of tithes has been exacted, or as the force of the legal decree has been applied for fault of the most trifling sort imaginable, perhaps they would not be averse to their baptismal vows.{{Sfn|Goldberg|1995|p=478}}
</blockquote>
Charlemagne's successor, [[Louis the Pious]], reportedly treated the Saxons more as Alcuin would have wished, and as a consequence they were faithful subjects.<ref>{{harvnb|Hummer|2005|p=141}}, based on [[Astronomus]].</ref> The lower classes, however, revolted against Frankish overlordship in favour of their old paganism as late as the 840s, when the {{Lang|osx|[[Stellinga]]}} rose up against the Saxon leadership, who were allied with the Frankish emperor [[Lothair I]]. After the suppression of the ''{{Lang|osx|Stellinga}}'', in 851 [[Louis the German]] brought [[relics]] from [[Rome]] to Saxony to foster a devotion to the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{Sfn|Hummer|2005|p=143}} The [[Poeta Saxo]], in his verse {{Lang|la|Annales}} of Charlemagne's reign (written between 888 and 891), laid an emphasis on his conquest of Saxony. He celebrated the Frankish monarch as on par with the Roman emperors and as the bringer of Christian salvation to people. References are made to periodic outbreaks of pagan worship, especially of Freya, among the Saxon peasantry as late as the 12th century.
=====Christian literature=====
In the ninth century, the Saxon nobility became vigorous supporters of [[monasticism]] and formed a bulwark of Christianity against the existing [[Slavic paganism]] to the east and the [[Nordic paganism]] of the [[Vikings]] to the north. Much Christian literature was produced in the vernacular [[Old Saxon]], the notable ones being a result of the literary output and wide influence of Saxon monasteries such as [[Abbey of Fulda|Fulda]], [[Abbey of Corvey|Corvey]] and [[Verden an der Aller|Verden]]; and the theological controversy between the [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustinian]], [[Gottschalk (theologian)|Gottschalk]] and [[Rabanus Maurus]].{{Sfn|Goldberg|1995|p=477}}
From an early date, Charlemagne and [[Louis the Pious]] supported Christian [[vernacular literature|vernacular]] works in order to evangelise the Saxons more efficiently. The ''[[Heliand]]'', a verse epic of the life of Christ in a Germanic setting, and ''Genesis'', another epic retelling of the events of [[Book of Genesis|the first book of the Bible]], were commissioned in the early ninth century by Louis to disseminate scriptural knowledge to the masses. A council of [[Tours]] in 813 and then a synod of [[Mainz]] in 848 both declared that [[Homily|homilies]] ought to be preached in the vernacular. The earliest preserved text in the Saxon language is a [[Old Saxon Baptismal Vow|baptismal vow]] from the late eighth or early ninth century; the vernacular was used extensively in an effort to Christianise the lowest castes of Saxon society.{{Sfn|Hummer|2005|p=138–139}}
==Saxon as a demonym==
===Celtic languages===
In the [[Celtic languages]], the words designating English nationality derive from the Latin word {{lang|la|Saxones}}. The most prominent example, a [[loanword]] in English from [[Scottish Gaelic]] (older spelling: {{lang|gd|Sasunnach}}), is the word {{lang|sco|Sassenach}}, used by [[Scots language|Scots]]-, Scottish English- and Gaelic-speakers in the 21st century<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sassenach |title= Definition of SASSENACH |publisher= [[Merriam-Webster|Merriam-Webster, Inc.]] |access-date= 2019-01-16}}</ref> as a [[racial slur|racially pejorative]] term for an English person and, traditionally, to the English-speaking lowlanders of Scotland.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=Walter |title=The Lady of the Lake |date=1871 |publisher=T. Nelson and Sons}}</ref> The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' (OED) gives 1771 as the date of the earliest written use of the word in English.  The Gaelic name for England is {{lang|gd|Sasann}} (older spelling: {{lang|gd|Sasunn}}, [[genitive case|genitive]]: {{lang|gd|Sasainn}}), and {{lang|gd|Sasannach}} (formed with a common adjective suffix {{lang|gd|-ach}}<ref>{{oed | Sassenach}}</ref>) means 'English' in reference to people and things, though not when naming the English language, which is {{lang|gd|Béarla}}.
{{lang|ga|Sasanach}}, the [[Irish language|Irish]] word for an Englishman (with {{lang|ga|Sasana}} meaning England), has the same derivation, as do the words used in [[Welsh language|Welsh]] to describe the English people ({{lang|cy|Saeson}}, singular {{lang|cy|Sais}}) and the language and things English in general: {{lang|cy|Saesneg}} and {{lang|cy|Seisnig}}.
[[Cornish language|Cornish]] terms the English {{lang|kw|Sawsnek}}, from the same derivation. In the 16th century Cornish-speakers used the phrase {{lang|kw|Meea navidna cowza sawzneck}} to feign ignorance of the English language.<ref>[[Richard Carew (antiquary)|Richard Carew]], ''Survey of Cornwall'', 1602. N.B. in revived Cornish, this would be transcribed, {{lang|kw|My ny vynnaf cows sowsnek}}. The Cornish word {{lang|kw|Emit}} meaning 'ant' (and perversely derived from [[Old English]]) is more commonly used in Cornwall {{as of|2015|lc=on}} as slang to designate non-Cornish Englishmen.</ref> The Cornish words for the English people and England are {{lang|kw|Sowsnek}} and {{lang|kw|Pow Sows}} ('Land [Pays] of Saxons'). Similarly [[Breton language|Breton]], spoken in north-western France, has {{lang|br|saoz(on)}} ('English'), {{lang|br|saozneg}} ('the English language'), and {{lang|br|Bro-saoz}} for 'England'.
===Romance languages===
The label ''Saxons'' (in {{langx|ro|Sași}}) also became attached to [[Transylvanian Saxons|German settlers]] who settled during the 12th century in southeastern [[Transylvania]].<ref>{{cite web|lang=ro|url=https://politeia.org.ro/magazin-istoric/sasii-saxonii-transilvaniei/18256/|title=Saşii – Saxonii Transilvaniei|author=Magazin Istoric|work=Politeia|date=5 September 2013}}</ref>
From Transylvania, some of these Saxons migrated to neighbouring [[Moldavia]], as the name of the town [[Sascut]], in present-day Romania, shows.
===Non-Indo-European languages===
The [[Finns]] and [[Estonians]] have changed their usage of the root ''Saxon'' over the centuries to apply now to the whole country of Germany ({{lang|fi|Saksa}} and {{lang|et|Saksamaa}} respectively) and the [[Germans]] ({{lang|fi|saksalaiset}} and {{lang|et|sakslased}}, respectively). The [[Finnish language|Finnish]] word {{lang|fi|sakset}} ([[scissors]]) reflects the name of the old Saxon single-edged sword – [[seax]] – from which the name ''Saxon'' supposedly derives.<ref>{{cite book |title=Suomen sanojen alkuperä. Etymologinen sanakirja |publisher=Suomalaisen kirjallisuuden seura, Kotimaisten kielten tutkimuskeskus |year=2012 |volume=3. R-Ö |pages=146 |language=fi}}</ref> In [[Estonian language|Estonian]], {{lang|et|saks}} means colloquially, 'a wealthy person'. As a result of the [[Northern Crusades]], [[Estonia]]'s upper class comprised mostly Baltic Germans, persons of supposedly Saxon origin until well into the 20th century.
==Saxony as a later toponym==
Following the downfall of [[Henry the Lion]] (1129{{nsndns}}1195, Duke of Saxony 1142{{nsndns}}1180), and the subsequent splitting of the Saxon tribal duchy into several territories, the name of the Saxon duchy was transferred to the lands of the [[House of Ascania|Ascanian]] family. This led to the differentiation between [[Lower Saxony]] (lands settled by the Saxon tribe) and [[Upper Saxony]] (the lands belonging to the [[House of Wettin]]). Gradually, the latter region became known as Saxony, ultimately usurping the name's original geographical meaning. The area formerly known as Upper Saxony now lies in [[Central Germany (cultural area)|Central Germany]] – in the eastern part of the present-day [[Federal Republic of Germany]]: note the names of the federal states of [[Saxony]] and [[Saxony-Anhalt]].
==Notes==
{{Reflist}}
==References==
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* {{cite journal|last1=Reynolds|first1=Robert L. |last2=Lopez |first2=Robert S. |year=1946 |title=Odoacer: German or Hun? |journal=[[The American Historical Review]] |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=36–53 |jstor=1845067 |doi=10.1086/ahr/52.1.36}}
* {{Cite book |last=Schütte |first=Gudmund |url=https://archive.org/details/ptolemysmapsofno00schrich/ |title=Ptolemy's maps of northern Europe, a reconstruction of the prototypes |date=1917 |publisher=H. Hagerup |location=Copenhagen |via=[[Archive.org]]}}
*{{cite book |last=Springer |first=Matthias |title=Die Sachsen |year=2004 |publisher=[[Kohlhammer Verlag]] |isbn=978-3-17-023227-3 |language=de|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3op4DwAAQBAJ}}
*{{citation| last=Springer| first=Matthias| chapter=Sachsen| title=Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde|volume=26|year=2004b| publisher=Walter de Gruyter| isbn=978-3-11-017734-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XncmdPu_yykC&pg=PA33}}
* {{Cite book |last=Stenton |first=Sir Frank M. |author-link=Frank Stenton |title=Anglo-Saxon England |date=1971 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |edition=3rd}}
* {{Cite book |url=http://www.bu.edu/english/levine/grch4%2B5.htm |title=The Fourth Book of the Chronicle of Fredegar with its Continuations |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |year=1960 |location=Connecticut |translator-last=Wallace-Hadrill |translator-first=John Michael |ref={{SfnRef|Fredegar|1960}} |translator-link=J. M. Wallace-Hadrill |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060203233532/http://www.bu.edu/english/levine/grch4+5.htm |archive-date=2006-02-03 |url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=James Westfall |author-link=James Westfall Thompson |title=Feudal Germany |date=1928 |publisher=Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. |location=New York}}
==External links==
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/britannia/saxonadvent/saxonadvent.html James Grout: ''Saxon Advent'', part of the Encyclopædia Romana]
* [http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/index.cfm?id=1393742006 Saxons and Britons]
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Saxons}}
{{Germanic peoples}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Saxons| ]]
[[Category:History of North Rhine-Westphalia]]
[[Category:Early Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:German tribes]]
[[Category:Ingaevones]]