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{{short description|First Chhatrapati of the Marathas (r. 1674–80)}}
{{Other uses|Shivaji (disambiguation)}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Use Indian English|date=June 2016}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Shivaji I<!--
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| title        = Maharaja <br>Shakakarta{{sfn|Sardesai|1957|p=222}}<br>[[Defender of the Faith#Elsewhere|Haindava Dharmoddharak]]<ref name="Chandra1982">{{cite book|author=Satish Chandra|title=Medieval India: Society, the Jagirdari Crisis, and the Village|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRM1AAAAIAAJ|year=1982|publisher=
Macmillan|page=140|isbn=978-0-333-90396-4}}</ref><br/>[[Kshatriya]] Kulavantas''<ref name="Sardesai2002">{{cite book |author=H. S. Sardesai |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=deHZAUDHzYwC&pg=PA431 |title=Shivaji, the Great Maratha |publisher=Cosmo Publications |year=2002 |isbn=978-81-7755-286-7 |page=431}}</ref><ref name="Kulkarnee1975">{{cite book |author=Narayan H. Kulkarnee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=faodAAAAMAAJ&q=kshatriya+Kulawatans |title=Chhatrapati Shivaji, Architect of Freedom: An Anthology |publisher=Chhatrapati Shivaji Smarak Samiti |year=1975}}</ref>
| royal house  =
| image        = Shivaji British Museum.jpg <!-- Consensus at Special:PermaLink/1028625186#Consensus_for_Infobox_image -->
| caption      = Portrait of Shivaji ({{circa|1680s}}), [[British Museum]]
| succession   = [[Chhatrapati|Chhatrapati of the Marathas]]
| reign        = 6 June 1674 – 3 April 1680
| coronation   = {{Plainlist|
* 6 June 1674 (first)
* 24 September 1674 (second)
}}
| predecessor  = ''Position established''
| successor    = [[Sambhaji]]
| birth_date   = {{birth date|1630|02|19|df=y}}
| birth_place  = [[Shivneri Fort]], [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate]] {{small|(present-day [[Maharashtra]], India)}}
| death_date   = {{death date and age|1680|04|03|1630|02|19|df=y}}
| death_place  = [[Raigad Fort]], [[Mahad]], [[Maratha Kingdom]] {{small|(present-day Maharashtra, India)}}
| spouse       = {{Plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Sai Bhonsale]]|1640|1659|end=d.}}
* {{marriage|[[Soyarabai]]|1650}}
* {{marriage|[[Putalabai]]|1653}}
* {{marriage|[[Sakvarbai]]|1656}}
* Kashibai Jadhav{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=260}}
}}
| issue        = 8,<ref>{{cite book|editor=Anne Feldhaus|author=James Laine|title=Images of women in Maharashtrian literature and religion|date=1996|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany|isbn=978-0-7914-2837-5|page=183|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooV3Rz9zQvQC&q=sabhasad+shivaji+rajaram+bakhar&pg=PA97}}</ref> including [[Sambhaji]] and [[Rajaram&nbsp;I]]
| house        = [[Bhonsle dynasty|Bhonsale]]
| father       = [[Shahaji]]
| mother       = [[Jijabai]]
| signature    = Shivaji I signature.png
| religion     = [[Hinduism]]
| suc-type1    = dff
| reg-type1    =
| regent1      =
}}
{{Campaignbox|raw_name=|title=Campaigns of [[Shivaji]]|name=Campaigns of Shivaji|battles=* [[Shivaji's Campaign of Javali|Javali]]
* [[Battle of Pratapgarh|Pratapgarh]]
* [[Battle of Kollhapur|Kolhapur]]
* [[Shivaji's invasions of Janjira|Janjira]]
* [[Battle of Pavan Khind|Pavan Khind]]
* [[Night Raid at Pune|Pune]]
* [[Sack of Surat|1st Surat]]
* [[Battle of Purandar|Purandar]]
* [[Battle of Sinhagad|Kondhana]]
* [[Second Sack of Surat|2nd Surat]]
* [[Battle of Vani-Dindori|Vani-Dindori]]
* [[Battle of Salher|Salher]]
* [[Battle of Shivneri Fort|Shivneri]]
* [[Battle of Umrani|Umrani]]
* [[Shivaji's Southern Campaign|Karnataka]]
* [[Shivaji's Southern Campaign#Seizure of Jinji, Siege of Vellore and Battle at Tiruvadi|Gingee]]
* [[Shivaji's Southern Campaign#Seizure of Jinji, Siege of Vellore and Battle at Tiruvadi|Vellore]]
* [[Battle of Bhupalgarh|Bhupalgarh]]|listclass=hislist}}
'''Shivaji I''' (Shivaji Shahaji Bhonsale, {{IPA|mr|ʃiˈʋaːdʑiː ˈbʱos(ə)le}}; {{circa|}}19 February 1630 – 3 April 1680)<ref>Dates are given according to the [[Julian calendar]], see [http://www.tifr.res.in/~vahia/shivaji.pdf Mohan Apte, Porag Mahajani, M. N. Vahia. Possible errors in historical dates: Error in correction from Julian to Gregorian Calendars].</ref> was an Indian ruler and a member of the [[Bhonsle dynasty]].{{Sfn|Robb|2011|pages=103–104}} Shivaji carved out his own independent kingdom from the [[Sultanate of Bijapur]] that formed the genesis of the [[Maratha Confederacy]].
Over the course of his life, Shivaji engaged in both alliances and hostilities with the [[Mughal Empire]], the [[Sultanate of Golconda]], the Sultanate of Bijapur and the [[Colonial India|European colonial powers]]. Shivaji offered passage and his service to Aurangzeb to invade the declining Sultanate of Bijapur. After Aurangzeb's departure for the north due to a war of succession, Shivaji conquered territories ceded by Bijapur in the name of the Mughals.<ref name="Gordon2007"/> {{rp|63}} Following the [[Battle of Purandar]], Shivaji entered into vassalage with the Mughal empire, assuming the role of a Mughal chief and was conferred with the title of ''[[Raja (title)|Raja]]'' by Aurangzeb.<ref>{{cite book | last=Eraly | first=A. | title=Emperors Of The Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Moghuls | publisher=Penguin Books Limited | year=2007 | isbn=978-93-5118-093-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7kPQs8llvkC&pg=PT672 | access-date=2024-10-27 | page=672}}</ref> He undertook military expeditions on behalf of the Mughal empire for a brief duration.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=John F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC |title=The Mughal Empire |date=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |pages=210 |language=en}}</ref>
In 1674, Shivaji was coronated as the king despite opposition from local Brahmins.<ref name="Gordon2007"/> {{rp|87}}<ref name="a337">{{cite book | last=Mahaley | first=K.L. | title=Shivaji, the Pragmatist | publisher=Vishwa Bharati Prakashan | year=1969 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bh5-ALtVMroC | access-date=2024-10-18 | page=116}}</ref> Praised for his chivalrous treatment of women,<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jadunath |url=http://archive.org/details/shivajihistimes00sarkrich |title=Shivaji and his times |date=1920 |publisher=London, New York, Longmans, Green and co. |others=University of California Libraries |pages=20–30, 43, 437, 158, 163}}</ref> Shivaji employed people of all castes and religions, including Muslims{{sfn|Deshpande|2015}} and Europeans, in his administration and armed forces.<ref>Scammell, G. (1992). European Exiles, Renegades and Outlaws and the Maritime Economy of Asia c. 1500–1750. Modern Asian Studies, 26(4), 641–661. {{doi|10.1017/S0026749X00010003}}, [https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/1FC7C871E67628A6D0EB8BAB81055E95/S0026749X00010003a.pdf/european_exiles_renegades_and_outlaws_and_the_maritime_economy_of_asia_c15001750.pdf]</ref> Shivaji's military forces expanded the Maratha sphere of influence, capturing and building forts, and forming a [[Maratha Navy|Maratha navy]].
Shivaji's legacy was revived by [[Jyotirao Phule]] about two centuries after his death. Later on, he came to be glorified by Indian nationalists such as [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]], and appropriated by Hindutva activists.<ref name="f819">{{cite book | last=Śinde | first=J.R. | title=Dynamics of Cultural Revolution: 19th Century Maharashtra | publisher=Ajanta Publications | year=1985 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TtsiAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2024-10-12 | page=67 | quote=Shivaji had almost vanished from the minds of the people and the leaders of Maharashtra it was Phule who first revived them composing a ballad on Shivaji in 1869 }}</ref><ref name="w423">{{cite book | last=Devare | first=A. | title=History and the Making of a Modern Hindu Self | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-136-19707-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t5SrhADwCGEC&pg=PT157 | access-date=2024-10-12 | page=157}}</ref>{{sfn|Wolpert|1962|pp=79–81}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Biswas |first1=Debajyoti |last2=Ryan |first2=John Charles |title=Nationalism in India: Texts and Contexts |date= 2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-00-045282-2 |page=32 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RC5AEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT32 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sengar |first1=Bina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UnatDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT140 |title=Spaces and Places in Western India: Formations and Delineations |last2=McMillin |first2=Laurie Hovell |date=2019|publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-69155-9 |language=en}}</ref>
== Early life ==
{{Main|Early life of Shivaji}}
{{See also|Bhonsle#origin}}Shivaji was born in the hill-fort of [[Shivneri]], near [[Junnar]], which is now in [[Pune district]]. Scholars disagree on his date of birth; the [[Government of Maharashtra]] lists 19 February as a holiday commemorating Shivaji's birth ([[Shiv Jayanti|Shivaji Jayanti]]).{{efn|Based on multiple committees of historians and experts, the Government of Maharashtra accepts 19 February 1630 as his birthdate. This [[Julian calendar]] date  of that period (1 March 1630 of today's [[Gregorian calendar]]) corresponds<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Mohan |last1=Apte |first2=Parag |last2=Mahajani |first3=M. N. |last3=Vahia|title=Possible errors in historical dates|journal=Current Science|volume=84|issue=1|page=21|date =January 2003|url=http://www.tifr.res.in/~vahia/shivaji.pdf}}</ref> to the [[Hindu calendar]] birth date from contemporary records.<ref>{{cite book|first=A. R. |last=Kulkarni|title=Jedhe Shakavali Kareena|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/003539370|date=2007|publisher=Diamond Publications|isbn=978-81-89959-35-7|page=7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kavindra Parmanand Nevaskar|title=Shri Shivbharat|url=https://archive.org/details/ShriShivbharat|date=1927|publisher=Sadashiv Mahadev Divekar|page=[https://archive.org/details/ShriShivbharat/page/n140 51]}}</ref><ref name="ApteParanjpe1927">{{cite book|author=D.V Apte and M.R. Paranjpe|title=Birth-Date of Shivaji|url=https://dspace.gipe.ac.in/xmlui/handle/10973/32857|date=1927|publisher=The Maharashtra Publishing House|pages=6–17}}</ref> Other suggested dates include 6 April 1627 or dates near this day.<ref name="Sib_Pada">{{cite book|title=Historians and historiography in modern India|author=Siba Pada Sen|publisher=Institute of Historical Studies|year=1973|isbn=978-81-208-0900-0|page=106}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| title = History of India | author = N. Jayapalan| publisher = Atlantic Publishers & Distri| year = 2001 | isbn = 978-81-7156-928-1| page = 211}}</ref>}}<ref name="sen2">{{cite book |author=Sailendra Sen|title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-38060-734-4 |pages=196–199}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Public Holidays|url=https://www.maharashtra.gov.in/pdf/HolidayList-2016.pdf|website=maharashtra.gov.in|access-date=19 May 2018}}</ref> Shivaji was named after a local deity, the [[Devi|Goddess]] Shivai Devi.<!-- "Shivai Devi" not Shiva -->{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=19}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Laine |first1=James W. |title=Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972643-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__pQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |language=en}}</ref>[[File:MainEntranceGate.jpg|thumb|left|[[Shivneri Fort]]]]
Shivaji belonged to a [[Maratha]] family of the [[Bhonsle]] clan.<ref name="Kulkarni1963" /> Shivaji's father, [[Shahaji Bhonsle]], was a [[Maratha]] general who served the [[Deccan Sultanates]].<ref name="Eaton2005">{{cite book|author=Richard M. Eaton|title=A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761: Eight Indian Lives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DNNgdBWoYKoC&pg=PA128|volume=1|date=2005|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-25484-7|pages=128–221}}</ref> His mother was [[Jijabai]], the daughter of [[Lakhuji Jadhavrao]] of [[Sindhkhed]], a Mughal-aligned [[sardar]] claiming descent from a [[Seuna (Yadava) dynasty|Yadav]] royal family of [[Devagiri]].<ref name="Metha2004">{{cite book|author=Arun Metha|title=History of medieval India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X0IwAQAAIAAJ|year=2004|publisher=ABD Publishers|page=278|isbn=978-81-85771-95-3}}</ref><ref name="Menon2011">{{cite book|author=Kalyani Devaki Menon|title=Everyday Nationalism: Women of the Hindu Right in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7TLRCtw-zvoC&pg=PA44|date= 2011|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-0-8122-0279-3|pages=44–}}</ref> His paternal grandfather [[Maloji Bhosale|Maloji]] (1552–1597) was an influential general of [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate]], and was awarded the epithet of "[[Raja]]". He was given ''[[deshmukh]]i'' rights of Pune, Supe, Chakan, and Indapur to provide for military expenses. He was also given Fort Shivneri for his family's residence ({{circa|1590}}).<ref>Marathi book Shivkaal (Times of Shivaji) by Dr V G Khobrekar, Publisher: Maharashtra State Board for Literature and Culture, 1st. ed. 2006. Chapter 1</ref><ref name="Salma314">{{cite book|author=Salma Ahmed Farooqui|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sxhAtCflwOMC&pg=PA314|title=A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century|publisher=Dorling Kindersley India|year=2011|isbn=978-81-317-3202-1|pages=314–}}</ref>
At the time of Shivaji's birth, power in the Deccan was shared by three Islamic sultanates: [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]], [[Ahmadnagar Sultanate|Ahmednagar]], [[Golkonda Sultanate|Golkonda]], and the [[Mughal Empire]]. Shahaji often changed his loyalty between the Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar, the Adilshahi of Bijapur and the Mughals, but always kept his ''[[jagir]]'' (fiefdom) at [[Pune]] and his small army.<ref name="Eaton2005" />
== Ancestry ==
{{ahnentafel|1. '''Shivaji I'''|2.[[Shahaji]]|3. [[Jijabai]]|4. [[Maloji]]|5.Uma Bai|6.[[Lakhuji Jadhav]]|7. Mahalsabai Jadhav|8.Babaji |10=|collapsed=yes|align=center|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;|11=|12=12.Vithoji|13=13.Thakrai}}
== Conflict with Bijapur Sultanate ==
=== Background and context ===
In 1636, the [[Sultanate of Bijapur]] invaded the kingdoms to its south.{{Sfn|Robb|2011|pages=103–104}} The sultanate had recently become a tributary state of the [[Mughal Empire]].{{Sfn|Robb|2011|pages=103–104}}{{Sfn|Subrahmanyam|2002|pp=33–35}} It was being helped by Shahaji, who at the time was a chieftain in the [[Maharashtra|Maratha uplands]] of western India. Shahaji was looking for opportunities of rewards of ''[[jagir]]'' land in the conquered territories, the taxes on which he could collect as an annuity.{{Sfn|Robb|2011|pages=103–104}}
Shahaji was a rebel from brief Mughal service. Shahaji's campaigns against the Mughals, supported by the Bijapur government, were generally unsuccessful. He was constantly pursued by the Mughal army, and Shivaji and his mother Jijabai had to move from fort to fort.{{sfn|Gordon|2007|p=59}}[[File:Shahaji and Shivaji at Jejuri.jpg|thumb|Young Shivaji (right) meets his father [[Shahaji]]. (left)]]In 1636, Shahaji joined in the service of Bijapur and obtained [[Pune|Poona]] as a grant. Shahaji, being deployed in [[Bangalore]] by the Bijapuri ruler Adilshah, appointed [[Dadoji Kondadeo]] as Poona's administrator. Shivaji and Jijabai settled in Poona.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sarkar |first=Jadunath |title=Shivaji and his times |publisher=Orient Blackswan Private Limited |year=1952 |isbn=978-8125040262 |edition=5th |location=Hyderabad |pages=19}}</ref> Kondadeo died in 1647 and Shivaji took over its administration. One of his first acts directly challenged the Bijapuri government.{{sfn|Gordon|2007|p=61}}
=== Independent generalship ===
In 1646, 16-year-old Shivaji captured the [[Torna Fort]], taking advantage of the confusion prevailing in the Bijapur court due to the illness of [[Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur|Sultan Mohammed Adil Shah]], and seized the large treasure he found there.<ref name="auto3">{{cite book|last=Mahajan|first=V. D.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/956763986|title=India since 1526|date=2000|publisher=S. Chand|isbn=81-219-1145-1|edition=17th ed., rev. & enl|location=New Delhi|pages=198|oclc=956763986}}</ref>{{sfn|Gordon|1993|p=61}} In the following two years, Shivaji took several important forts near Pune, including [[Purandar Fort|Purandar]], [[Kondhana]], and [[Chakan Fort|Chakan]]. He also brought areas east of Pune around [[Supa, Parner|Supa]], [[Baramati]], and [[Indapur]] under his direct control. He used the treasure found at Torna to build a new fort named [[Rajgad Fort|Rajgad]]. That fort served as the seat of his government for over a decade.<ref name="auto3" /> After this, Shivaji turned west to the [[Konkan]] and took possession of the important town of [[Kalyan]]. The Bijapur government took note of these happenings and sought to take action. On 25 July 1648, Shahaji was imprisoned by a fellow Maratha sardar called Baji Ghorpade, under the orders of the Bijapur government, in a bid to contain Shivaji.<ref>Kulkarni, A.R., 1990. Maratha Policy Towards the Adil Shahi Kingdom. Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, 49, pp. 221–226.</ref>[[File:JoppenSouthIndia1605max.jpg|thumb|Map of Southern India {{Circa|1605}}]]
Shahaji was released in 1649, after the capture of [[Gingee Fort|Jinji]] secured Adilshah's position in Karnataka. During 1649–1655, Shivaji paused in his conquests and quietly consolidated his gains.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|pp=41–42}} Following his father's release, Shivaji resumed raiding, and in 1656, under controversial circumstances, killed [[Morè (clan)|Chandrarao More]], a fellow Maratha feudatory of Bijapur, and seized the valley of [[Jawali, Maharashtra|Javali]], near the present-day hill station of [[Mahabaleshwar]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Eaton|first=Richard M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aIF6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP198|title=India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765|date=2019|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=978-0-14-196655-7|page=198|language=en}}</ref> The conquest of Javali allowed Shivaji to extend his raids into south and southwest Maharashtra. In addition to the Bhonsle and the More families, many others—including [[Sawant]] of [[Sawantwadi State|Sawantwadi]], Ghorpade of [[Mudhol State|Mudhol]], [[Nimbalkar]] of [[Phaltan]], Shirke, Gharge of  Nimsod, Mane, and [[Mohite_(clan)|Mohite]]—also served Adilshahi of Bijapur, many with [[Deshmukh]]i rights. Shivaji adopted different strategies to subdue these powerful families, such as forming marital alliances, dealing directly with village Patils to bypass the Deshmukhs, or subduing them by force.{{sfn|Gordon|2007|p=85}} Shahaji in his later years had an ambivalent attitude toward his son, and  disavowed his rebellious activities.{{sfn|Gordon|1993|p=69}} He told the Bijapuris to do whatever they wanted with Shivaji.{{sfn|Gordon|1993|p=69}} Shahaji died around 1664–1665 in a hunting accident.{{sfn|Gordon|1993|p=58}}
=== Combat with Afzal Khan ===
{{Main|Battle of Pratapgarh}}[[File:Death of Afzal Khan.jpg|thumb|An early-20th-century painting by [[Sawlaram Haldankar]] of Shivaji fighting the Bijapuri general Afzal Khan|left]]
[[File:Pratapgad (2).jpg|thumb|left|[[Pratapgad]] fort]]
The Bijapur Sultanate was displeased with their losses to Shivaji's forces, with their vassal Shahaji disavowing his son's actions. After a peace treaty with the Mughals, and the general acceptance of the young [[Ali Adil Shah II]] as the sultan, the Bijapur government became more stable, and turned its attention towards Shivaji.{{sfn|Gordon|1993|p=66}} In 1657, the sultan, or more likely his mother and regent, sent [[Afzal Khan (general)|Afzal Khan]], a veteran general, to arrest Shivaji. Before engaging him, the Bijapuri forces desecrated the [[Tulja Bhavani Temple]], a holy site for Shivaji's family, and the [[Vithoba Temple|Vithoba temple]] at [[Pandharpur]], a major pilgrimage site for Hindus.<ref name="Richards1995">{{cite book |author=John F. Richards |title=The Mughal Empire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA208 |year=1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |pages=208–}}</ref>{{sfn|Eaton, The Sufis of Bijapur|2015|pp=183–184}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roy|first1=Kaushik|title=Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present|date=2012|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-57684-0|page=202|language=en}}</ref>
Pursued by Bijapuri forces, Shivaji retreated to [[Pratapgad]] fort, where many of his colleagues pressed him to surrender.<ref name="Eraly2000">{{cite book |author=Abraham Eraly |title=Last Spring: The Lives and Times of Great Mughals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyVW0STaGBcC&pg=PT550 |date=2000 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-93-5118-128-6 |page=550}}</ref> The two forces found themselves at a stalemate, with Shivaji unable to break the siege, while Afzal Khan, having a powerful cavalry but lacking siege equipment, was unable to take the fort. After two months, Afzal Khan sent an envoy to Shivaji suggesting the two leaders meet in private, outside the fort, for negotiations.<ref name="Roy2012">{{cite book |author=Kaushik Roy |title=Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia: From Antiquity to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l1IgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA202 |date=2012 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-57684-0 |pages=202–}}</ref>{{sfn|Gier, The Origins of Religious Violence|2014|p=17}}
The two met in a hut in the foothills of Pratapgad fort on 10 November 1659. The arrangements had dictated that each come armed only with a sword, and attended by one follower. Shivaji, suspecting Afzal Khan would arrest or attack him,{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=70}}{{efn|A decade earlier, Afzal Khan, in a parallel situation, had arrested a Hindu general during a truce ceremony.{{sfn|Gordon|2007|p=67}}}} wore armour beneath his clothes, concealed a ''[[bagh nakh]]'' (metal "tiger claw") on his left arm, and had a dagger in his right hand.{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960|p=22}} What transpired is not known with historical certainty, mainly Maratha legends tell the tale; however, it is agreed that the two wound up in a physical struggle that proved fatal for Khan.{{efn|Jadunath Sarkar after weighing all recorded evidence in this behalf, has settled the point "that Afzal Khan struck the first blow" and that "Shivaji committed.... a preventive murder. It was a case of a diamond cut diamond." The conflict between Shivaji and Bijapur was essentially political in nature, and not communal.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kulkarni |first1=A. R. |title=The Marathas |date= 2008 |publisher=Diamond Publications |isbn=978-81-8483-073-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N45LDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT30 |language=en}}</ref>}} Khan's dagger failed to pierce Shivaji's armour, but Shivaji disembowelled him; Shivaji then fired a cannon to signal his hidden troops to attack the Bijapuri army.{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960}}
In the ensuing [[Battle of Pratapgarh]], Shivaji's forces decisively defeated the Bijapur Sultanate's forces. More than 3,000 soldiers of the Bijapur army were killed; and one sardar of high rank, two sons of Afzal Khan, and two Maratha chiefs were taken prisoner.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=75}} After the victory, a grand review was held by Shivaji below Pratapgarh. The captured enemy, both officers and men, were set free and sent back to their homes with money, food, and other gifts. Marathas were rewarded accordingly.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=75}}
=== Siege of Panhala ===
Having defeated the Bijapuri forces sent against him, Shivaji and his army marched towards the [[Konkan]] coast and [[Kolhapur]], seizing [[Panhala fort]], and defeating Bijapuri forces sent against them, under [[Rustam Zaman]] and Fazl Khan, in 1659.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=78}} In 1660, Adilshah sent his general Siddi Jauhar to attack Shivaji's southern border, in alliance with the Mughals who planned to attack from the north. At that time, Shivaji was encamped at Panhala fort with his forces. Siddi Jauhar's army besieged [[Panhala Fort|Panhala]] in mid-1660, cutting off supply routes to the fort. During the bombardment of Panhala, Siddi Jauhar purchased grenades from the English at [[Rajapur, Maharashtra|Rajapur]], and also hired some English artillerymen to assist in his bombardment of the fort, conspicuously flying a flag used by the English. This perceived betrayal angered Shivaji, who in December would retaliate by plundering the English factory at Rajapur and capturing four of the owners, imprisoning them until mid-1663.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=266}}
After months of siege, Shivaji negotiated with Siddi Jauhar and handed over the fort on 22 September 1660, withdrawing to Vishalgad;<ref name="Ali1996">{{cite book|first=Shanti Sadiq |last=Ali|title=The African Dispersal in the Deccan: From Medieval to Modern Times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3CPc22nMqIC&pg=PA124|year=1996|publisher=Orient Blackswan|isbn=978-81-250-0485-1|page=124}}</ref> Shivaji would retake Panhala in 1673.{{Sfn|Farooqui, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India|2011|p=283}}
=== Battle of Pavan Khind ===
{{Main|Battle of Pavan Khind}}
Shivaji escaped from Panhala by cover of night, and as he was pursued by the enemy cavalry, his Maratha sardar [[Baji Prabhu Deshpande]] of Bandal [[Deshmukh]], along with 300 soldiers, volunteered to fight to the death to hold back the enemy at Ghod Khind ("horse ravine") to give Shivaji and the rest of the army a chance to reach the safety of the [[Vishalgad]] fort.{{sfn|Sardesai|1957|p=}}
In the ensuing [[battle of Pavan Khind]], the smaller Maratha force held back the larger enemy to buy time for Shivaji to escape. Baji Prabhu Deshpande was wounded but continued to fight until he heard the sound of cannon fire from Vishalgad,<ref name="Kulkarni1963" /> signalling Shivaji had safely reached the fort, on the evening of 13 July 1660.<ref name="KulkarniIndia1992">{{cite book|author=Shripad Dattatraya Kulkarni|title=The Struggle for Hindu supremacy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_m1AAAAIAAJ|year=1992|publisher=Shri Bhagavan Vedavyasa Itihasa Samshodhana Mandira (Bhishma)|isbn=978-81-900113-5-8|page=90}}</ref>  ''Ghod Khind'' (''khind'' meaning "a narrow mountain pass") was later renamed ''Paavan Khind'' ("sacred pass") in honour of Bajiprabhu Deshpande, Shibosingh Jadhav, Fuloji, and all other soldiers who fought there.<ref name="KulkarniIndia1992" />
== Conflict with the Mughals ==
[[File:Sivaji and Army.jpg|thumb|Shivaji with his personal guards by Mir Muhammad c. 1672]]
Until 1657, Shivaji maintained peaceful relations with the Mughal Empire. Shivaji offered his assistance to [[Aurangzeb]], the son of the Mughal Emperor and [[viceroy]] of the Deccan, in conquering Bijapur, in return for formal recognition of his right to the Bijapuri forts and villages in his possession. Dissatisfied with the Mughal response, and receiving a better offer from Bijapur, he launched a raid into the Mughal Deccan.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|pp=55–56}} Shivaji's confrontations with the Mughals began in March 1657, when two of Shivaji's officers raided the Mughal territory near [[Ahmednagar]].<ref>{{cite book |author=S.R. Sharma|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wC27JDyApwC|title=Mughal empire in India: a systematic study including source material, Volume 2|year=1999 |publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|page=59 |isbn=978-81-7156-818-5 }}</ref> This was followed by raids in [[Junnar]], with Shivaji carrying off 300,000 ''[[hun (coin)|hun]]'' in cash and 200 horses.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=57}} Aurangzeb responded to the raids by sending Nasiri Khan, who defeated the forces of Shivaji at Ahmednagar. However, Aurangzeb's countermeasures against Shivaji were interrupted by the rainy season and his battles with his brothers over the succession to the Mughal throne, following the illness of the emperor [[Shah Jahan]].{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=60}}
=== Attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat ===
{{Main|Battle of Chakan|Battle of Umberkhind|Battle of Surat}}
[[File:Shaistekhan Surprised.jpg|thumb|right|A 20th century depiction  of Shivaji's surprise attack on Mughal general Shaista Khan in Pune by [[M.V. Dhurandhar]]]]
At the request of Badi Begum of Bijapur, Aurangzeb, now the Mughal emperor, sent his maternal uncle [[Shaista Khan]], with an army numbering over 150,000, along with a powerful artillery division, in January 1660 to attack Shivaji in conjunction with Bijapur's army led by Siddi Jauhar. Shaista Khan, with his better equipped and well provisioned army of 80,000 seized Pune. He also took the nearby fort of [[Chakan, Maharashtra|Chakan]], besieging it for a month and a half before breaching the walls.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indian Historical Records Commission: Proceedings of Meetings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lmotObeC3zUC|year=1929|publisher=Superintendent Government Printing, India|page=44}}</ref> He established his residence at Shivaji's palace of [[Lal Mahal]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Shivaji the Great Liberator|author=Aanand Aadeesh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ZMkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69|page=69|year=2011|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan|isbn=978-81-8430-102-1}}</ref>
On the night of 5 April 1663, Shivaji led a daring night attack on Shaista Khan's camp.{{sfn|Gordon|2007|p=71}} He, along with 400 men, attacked Shaista Khan's mansion, broke into Khan's bedroom and wounded him. Khan lost three fingers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mahmud |first1=Sayyid Fayyaz |last2=Mahmud |first2=S. F. |title=A Concise History of Indo-Pakistan |date=1988 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-577385-9 |page=158 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9xtuAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref> In the scuffle, Shaista Khan's son and several wives, servants, and soldiers were killed.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Richards |first1=John F. |title=The Mughal Empire |date=1993 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-56603-2 |page=209 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA209 |language=en}}</ref> The Khan took refuge with the Mughal forces outside of Pune, and Aurangzeb punished him for this embarrassment with a transfer to [[Bengal]].{{sfn|Mehta|2009|p=543}}
In retaliation for Shaista Khan's attacks, and to replenish his now-depleted treasury, in 1664 Shivaji [[Battle of Surat|sacked the port city of Surat]], a wealthy Mughal trading centre.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=491}} On 13 February 1665, he also conducted a [[Raid (military)|naval raid]] on [[Portugal|Portuguese]]-held [[Basrur]] in present-day Karnataka, and gained a large plunder.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shejwalkar |first1=T.S. |year=1942 |title=Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42929309 |jstor=42929309 |publisher=Vice Chancellor, Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute (Deemed University), Pune |volume=4 |pages=135–146 |access-date=30 August 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=15 February 2021 |title=Mega event to mark Karnataka port town Basrur's liberation from Portuguese by Shivaji |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/karnataka/2021/feb/15/mega-event-to-mark-karnataka-port-town-basrurs-liberation-from-portuguese-by-shivaji-2264393.html |newspaper=New Indian Express}}</ref>
=== Treaty of Purandar ===
{{Main|Treaty of Purandar (1665)}}
[[File:Jai Singh and Shivaji.jpg|thumb|Raja [[Jai Singh I|Jai Singh]] of Amber receiving Shivaji a day before concluding the [[Treaty of Purandar (1665)|Treaty of Purandar]]]]
The attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat enraged Aurangzeb. In response, he sent the [[Rajput]] general [[Jai Singh I]] with an army numbering around 15,000 to defeat Shivaji.<ref name="Gordon93" /> Throughout 1665, Jai Singh's forces pressed Shivaji, with their cavalry razing the countryside, and besieging Shivaji's forts. The Mughal commander succeeded in luring away several of Shivaji's key commanders, and many of his cavalrymen, into Mughal service. By mid-1665, with the fortress at Purandar besieged and near capture, Shivaji was forced to come to terms with Jai Singh.<ref name="Gordon93">{{harvnb|Gordon|1993|pp=1, 3–4, 50–55, 59, 71–75, 114, 115–125, 133, 138–139}}</ref>
In the [[Treaty of Purandar (1665)|Treaty of Purandar]], signed by Shivaji and Jai Singh on 11 June 1665, Shivaji agreed to give up 23 of his forts, keeping 12 for himself, and pay compensation of 400,000 gold [[Pagoda (coin)|hun]] to the Mughals.{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960|p=258}} Shivaji agreed to become a vassal of the Mughal empire, and to send his son Sambhaji, along with 5,000 horsemen, to fight for the Mughals in the Deccan, as a ''[[mansabdar]]''.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=77}}{{sfn|Gordon|1993|p=74}}
=== Arrest in Agra and escape ===
[[File:Raja Shivaji at Aurangzeb's Darbar- M V Dhurandhar.jpg|thumb|20th century depiction by M.V. Dhurandhar of Raja Shivaji at the court of Mughal Badshah, Aurangzeb.]]
In 1666, Aurangzeb summoned Shivaji to [[Agra]] (though some sources instead state Delhi), along with his nine-year-old son Sambhaji. Aurangzeb planned to send Shivaji to [[Kandahar]], now in Afghanistan, to consolidate the Mughal empire's northwestern frontier. However, on 12 May 1666, Shivaji was made to stand at court alongside relatively low-ranking nobles, men he had already defeated in battle.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Stewart |title=Marathas, Marauders, and State Formation in Eighteenth-century India |date=1994 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-563386-3 |page=206 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yBlKh1Pwof0C |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji took offence, stormed out,{{sfn|Gordon|1993|p=78}} and was promptly placed under house arrest. Ram Singh, son of Jai Singh, guaranteed custody of Shivaji and his son.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Meenakshi |title=The India They Saw (Vol. 3) |date=2011 |publisher=Prabhat Prakashan |isbn=978-81-8430-108-3 |pages=299, 300 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YlMkBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA299 |language=en}}</ref>
Shivaji's position under house arrest was perilous, as Aurangzeb's court debated whether to kill him or continue to employ him. Jai Singh, having assured Shivaji of his personal safety, tried to influence Aurangzeb's decision.{{sfn|Gordon|2007|p=76}}
Meanwhile, Shivaji hatched a plan to free himself. He sent most of his men back home and asked Ram Singh to withdraw his guarantees to the emperor for the safe custody of himself and his son. He surrendered to Mughal forces.<ref name="auto2">{{cite book |last1=Sarkar |first1=Jadunath |title=A History of Jaipur: c. 1503–1938 |date=1994 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-0333-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O0oPIo9TXKcC&pg=PA132 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Mehta |first1=Jl |title=Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-1015-3 |page=547 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-TsMl0vSc0gC&pg=PA547 |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji then pretended to be ill and began sending out large baskets packed with sweets to be given to the Brahmins and poor as penance.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Datta |first1=Nonica |title=Indian History: Ancient and medieval |date=2003 |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica (India) and Popular Prakashan, Mumbai |isbn=978-81-7991-067-2 |page=263 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zQxuAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Patel |first1=Sachi K. |title=Politics and Religion in Eighteenth-Century India: Jaisingh II and the Rise of Public Theology in Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇavism |date= 2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-00-045142-9 |page=40 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nCM_EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT40 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sabharwal |first1=Gopa |title=The Indian Millennium, AD 1000–2000 |date=2000 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-029521-4 |page=235 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sghuAAAAMAAJ |language=en}}</ref> On 17 August 1666, by putting himself in one of the baskets and his son Sambhaji in another, Shivaji escaped and left Agra.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kulkarni |first1=A. R. |title=The Marathas |date=2008 |publisher=Diamond Publications |isbn=978-81-8483-073-6 |page=34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N45LDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT34 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gandhi |first1=Rajmohan |title=Revenge and Reconciliation: Understanding South Asian History |date= 2000 |publisher=Penguin UK |isbn=978-81-8475-318-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xAASBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT163 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=SarDesai |first1=D. R. |title=India: The Definitive History |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-97950-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k6HsDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT202 |language=en}}</ref>{{Efn|As per Stewart Gordon, there is no proof for this, and Shivaji probably bribed the guards. But other Maratha Historians including A. R. Kulkarni and G. B. Mehendale disagree with Gordon. Jadunath Sarkar probed more deeply into this and put forth a large volume of evidence from Rajasthani letters and Persian Akhbars. With the help of this new material, Sarkar presented a graphic account of Shivajï's visit to Aurangzeb at Agra and his escape. Kulkarni agrees with Sarkar.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kulkarni |first1=A. R. |title=Marathas And The Maratha Country: Vol. I: Medieval Maharashtra: Vol. II: Medieval Maratha Country: Vol. III: The Marathas (1600–1648) (3 Vols.) |date=1996 |publisher=Books & Books |isbn=978-81-85016-51-1 |page=70 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZNBPgAACAAJ |language=en}}</ref>}}
=== Peace with the Mughals ===
After Shivaji's escape, hostilities with the Mughals ebbed, with the Mughal sardar Jaswant Singh acting as an intermediary between Shivaji and Aurangzeb for new peace proposals.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=98}} Between 1666 and 1668, Aurangzeb conferred the title of raja on Shivaji. Sambhaji was also restored as a [[Mansabdar|Mughal mansabdar]] with 5,000 horses. Shivaji at that time sent Sambhaji, with general [[Prataprao Gujar]], to serve with the Mughal viceroy in Aurangabad, [[Bahadur Shah I|Prince Mu'azzam]]. Sambhaji was also granted territory in [[Berar sultanate|Berar]] for revenue collection.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=185}} [[Aurangzeb]] also permitted Shivaji to attack Bijapur, ruled by the decaying [[Adil Shahi dynasty]]; the weakened Sultan [[Ali Adil Shah II]] sued for peace and granted the rights of ''[[sardeshmukhi]]'' and ''[[chauth]]ai'' to Shivaji.{{Sfn|Gordon|1993|p=231}}
== Reconquest ==
[[File:Shivaji Rijksmuseum.jpg|thumb|[[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] painting depicting Shivaji {{Circa|1680}} ]]
The peace between Shivaji and the Mughals lasted until 1670, after which Aurangzeb became suspicious of the close ties between Shivaji and Mu'azzam, who he thought might usurp his throne, and may even have been receiving bribes from Shivaji.<ref name="Deopujari1973">{{cite book|author=Murlidhar Balkrishna Deopujari|title=Shivaji and the Maratha Art of War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iF8MAAAAIAAJ|year=1973|publisher=Vidarbha Samshodhan Mandal|page=138}}</ref>{{sfn|Eraly, Emperors of the Peacock Throne|2000|p=460}} Also at that time, Aurangzeb, occupied in fighting the Afghans, greatly reduced his army in the Deccan; many of the disbanded soldiers quickly joined Maratha service.{{sfn|Eraly, Emperors of the Peacock Throne|2000|p=461}} The Mughals also took away the jagir of Berar from Shivaji to recover the money lent to him a few years earlier.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|pp=173–174}} In response, Shivaji launched an offensive against the Mughals and in a span of four months recovered a major portion of the territories that had been surrendered to them.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=175}}
Shivaji sacked Surat for a second time in 1670; the English and Dutch factories were able to repel his attack, but he managed to sack the city itself, including plundering the goods of a Muslim prince from [[Mawara-un-Nahr]], who was returning from [[Mecca]]. Angered by the renewed attacks, the Mughals resumed hostilities with the Marathas, sending a force under [[Daud Khan Panni|Daud Khan]] to intercept Shivaji on his return home from Surat; this force was defeated in the Battle of Vani-Dindori near present-day [[Nashik]].{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=189}}
In October 1670, Shivaji sent his forces to harass the English at Bombay; as they had refused to sell him war materiel, his forces blocked English woodcutting parties from leaving Bombay. In September 1671, Shivaji sent an ambassador to Bombay, again seeking materiel, this time for the fight against Danda-Rajpuri. The English had misgivings of the advantages Shivaji would gain from this conquest, but also did not want to lose any chance of receiving compensation for his looting their factories at Rajapur. The English sent Lieutenant Stephen Ustick to treat with Shivaji, but negotiations failed over the issue of the Rajapur indemnity. Numerous exchanges of envoys followed over the coming years, with some agreement as to the arms issues in 1674, but Shivaji was never to pay the Rajapur indemnity before his death, and the factory there dissolved at the end of 1682.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=393}}
=== Battles of Umrani and Nesari ===
{{See also|Battle of Umrani}}
In 1674, [[Prataprao Gujar]], the ''sarnaubat'' (commander-in-chief of the Maratha forces) and [[Anandrao]], was sent to push back the invading force led by the Bijapuri general, Bahlol Khan. Prataprao's forces defeated and captured the opposing general in the battle, after cutting-off their water supply by encircling a strategic lake, which prompted Bahlol Khan to sue for peace. In spite of Shivaji's specific warnings against doing so, Prataprao released Bahlol Khan, who started preparing for a fresh invasion.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|pp=230–233}}
Shivaji sent a letter to Prataprao, expressing his displeasure and refusing him an audience until Bahlol Khan was re-captured. Upset by this rebuke, Prataprao found Bahlol Khan and charged his position with only six other horsemen, leaving his main force behind, and was killed in combat. Shivaji was deeply grieved on hearing of Prataprao's death, and arranged for the marriage of his second son, [[Rajaram Chhatrapati|Rajaram]], to Prataprao's daughter. Prataprao was succeeded by [[Hambirrao Mohite]], as the new ''sarnaubat''. [[Raigad Fort]] was newly built by [[Hiroji Indulkar]], as a capital of the nascent Maratha kingdom.<ref name="Malavika_1999">{{cite journal | author= Malavika Vartak| title =Shivaji Maharaj: Growth of a Symbol | journal =Economic and Political Weekly| volume =34 | issue =19 | pages =1126–1134 | date =May 1999| jstor =4407933 }}</ref>
== Coronation ==
[[File:The Coronation Durbar with over 100 characters depicted in attendance.jpg|thumb|280x280px|20th century depiction of the Coronation Durbar with over 100 characters depicted in attendance by M.V. Dhurandhar]]
[[File:Deccan, ritratto di chhatrapati shivaji maharaj, bijapur 1675 ca.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Shivaji I c. 1675]]
Shivaji had acquired extensive lands and wealth through his campaigns, but lacking a formal title, he was still technically a Mughal [[zamindar]] or the son of a Bijapuri [[jagirdar]], with no legal basis to rule his de facto domain. A kingly title could address this and also prevent any challenges by other Maratha leaders, who were his equals.{{efn|Most of the great Maratha Jahagirdar families in the service of Adilshahi strongly opposed Shivaji in his early years. These included families such as the Ghadge, More, Mohite, Ghorpade, Shirke, and Nimbalkar.{{Sfn|Jasper|2003|p=215}}}} Such a title would also provide the [[Marathi people|Hindu Marathis]] with a fellow Hindu sovereign in a region otherwise ruled by Muslims.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|pp=239–240}}
The preparation for a proposed coronation began in 1673. However, some controversies delayed the coronation by almost a year.{{sfn|Gordon|1993|p=87}} One controversy erupted amongst the [[Brahmin|Brahmins]] of Shivaji's court: they refused to crown Shivaji as a king because that status was reserved for those of the ''[[kshatriya]] [[varna (Hinduism)|varna]]'' (warrior class) in Hindu society.<ref name="Gandhi1999">{{cite book|author=Rajmohan Gandhi|title=Revenge and Reconciliation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OVqP54UEe4QC&pg=PA110|year=1999|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-029045-5|pages=110–|quote=On the ground that Shivaji was merely a Maratha and not a kshatriya by caste, Maharashtra's Brahmins had refused to conduct a sacred coronation. }}</ref> Shivaji was descended from a line of headmen of farming villages, and the Brahmins accordingly categorised him as a Maratha, not a Kshatriya.{{sfn|Gordon|1993|p=87-88}}<ref name="BaviskarAttwood2013">{{cite book|author1=B. S. Baviskar|author2=D. W. Attwood|title=Inside-Outside: Two Views of Social Change in Rural India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVQtBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA395|date= 2013|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-81-321-1865-7|pages=395–}}</ref> They noted that Shivaji had never had a [[sacred thread]] ceremony, and did not wear the thread, such as a kshatriya would.{{sfn|Gordon|1993|p=88}} Shivaji summoned [[Gaga Bhatt]], a [[pandit]] of Varanasi, who stated that he had found a genealogy proving that Shivaji was descended from the [[Sisodia Dynasty|Sisodia]]s, and thus indeed a kshatriya, albeit one in need of the ceremonies befitting his rank.{{Sfn|Cashman, The Myth of the Lokamanya|1975|p=[https://archive.org/details/mythoflokamanya00rich/page/7 7]}} To enforce this status, Shivaji was given a sacred thread ceremony, and remarried his spouses under the [[Marriage in Hinduism|Vedic rites]] expected of a kshatriya.{{sfn|Farooqui, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India|2011|p=321}}<ref name="Godsmark2018">{{cite book|author=Oliver Godsmark|title=Citizenship, Community and Democracy in India: From Bombay to Maharashtra, c. 1930–1960|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CCpKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT40|date=2018|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-18821-0|pages=40–}}</ref> However, according to historical evidence, Shivaji's claim to [[Rajput]], and specifically of Sisodia ancestry, may be seen as being anything from tenuous, at best, to purely inventive.<ref name="Varma & Saberwal">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S8EoAAAAYAAJ|title=Traditions in Motion: Religion and Society in History|last1=Varma|first1=Supriya|last2=Saberwal|first2=Satish|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-566915-2|page=250|language=en}}</ref>
On 28 May, Shivaji did penance for his and his ancestors' not observing Kshatriya rites for so long. Then he was invested by Gaga Bhatt with the sacred thread.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=244}} On the insistence of other Brahmins, Gaga Bhatt omitted the Vedic chant and initiated Shivaji into a modified form of the life of the [[Dvija|twice-born]], instead of putting him on a par with the Brahmins. Next day, Shivaji made atonement for the sins, deliberate or accidental, committed in his own lifetime.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=245}} He was weighed separately against seven metals including gold, silver, and several other articles, such fine linen, camphor, salt, sugar etc. All these articles, along with a [[lakh]] (one hundred thousand) of hun, were distributed among the Brahmins. According to Sarkar, even this failed to satisfy the greed of the Brahmins. Two of the learned Brahmins pointed out that Shivaji, while conducting his raids, had killed Brahmins, cows, women, and children. He could be cleansed of these sins for a price of [[Rupee|Rs]]. 8,000, which Shivaji paid.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=245}} The total expenditure for feeding the assemblage, general almsgiving, throne, and ornaments approached 1.5 million [[Rupee|rupees]].{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=252}}
On 6 June 1674, Shivaji was crowned king of the [[Maratha Empire]] (''[[Hindavi Swarajya|Hindavi Swaraj]]'') in a lavish ceremony at Raigad fort.<ref name="Pillai2018">{{cite book|author=Manu S Pillai|title=Rebel Sultans: The Deccan from Khilji to Shivaji|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rq5oDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR9|year=2018|publisher=Juggernaut Books|isbn=978-93-86228-73-4|page=xvi}}</ref><ref name="Barua2005">{{cite book |first=Pradeep |last=Barua | title=The State at War in South Asia | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIIQhuAOGaIC&pg=PA42 | year= 2005 | publisher=University of Nebraska Press | isbn=978-0-8032-1344-9 | page=42 }}</ref> In the [[Hindu calendar]] it was the 13th day (''trayodashi'') of the first fortnight of the month of ''[[Jyeshtha (month)|Jyeshtha]]'' in the year 1596.<ref name="RauArchives1980">{{cite book|author=Mallavarapu Venkata Siva Prasada Rau (Andhra Pradesh Archives)|title=Archival organization and records management in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LXtmAAAAMAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Published under the authority of the Govt. of Andhra Pradesh by the Director of State Archives (Andhra Pradesh State Archives)|page=393}}</ref> Gaga Bhatt officiated, pouring water from a gold vessel filled with the waters of the seven sacred rivers—[[Yamuna]], [[Indus]], [[Ganges]], [[Godavari]], [[Narmada]], [[Krishna River|Krishna]], and [[Kaveri]]—over Shivaji's head, and chanted the Vedic coronation mantras. After the ablution, Shivaji bowed before his mother, Jijabai, and touched her feet. Nearly fifty thousand people gathered at Raigad for the ceremonies.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Yuva Bharati|year=1974|publisher=Vivekananda Rock Memorial Committee|page=13|edition=Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6vUoAAAAYAAJ&q=50,000+people+shivaji+coronation|quote=About 50,000 people witnessed the coronation ceremony and arrangements were made for their boarding and lodging.}}</ref> Shivaji was entitled ''Shakakarta'' ("founder of an era"){{sfn|Sardesai|1957|p=222}} and ''[[Chhatrapati]]'' ("[[Pati (title)|Lord]] of the [[Chatra (umbrella)|Umbrella]]"). He also took the title of ''[[Defender of Faith|Haindava Dharmodhhaarak]]'' (protector of the Hindu faith)<ref name="Chandra1982">{{cite book|author=Satish Chandra|title=Medieval India: Society, the Jagirdari Crisis, and the Village|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vRM1AAAAIAAJ|year=1982|publisher=
Macmillan|page=140|isbn=978-0-333-90396-4}}</ref> and ''Kshatriya Kulavantas'':<ref name="Sardesai2002">{{cite book |author=H. S. Sardesai |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=deHZAUDHzYwC&pg=PA431 |title=Shivaji, the Great Maratha |publisher=Cosmo Publications |year=2002 |isbn=978-81-7755-286-7 |page=431}}</ref><ref name="Kulkarnee1975">{{cite book |author=Narayan H. Kulkarnee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=faodAAAAMAAJ&q=kshatriya+Kulawatans |title=Chhatrapati Shivaji, Architect of Freedom: An Anthology |publisher=Chhatrapati Shivaji Smarak Samiti |year=1975}}</ref><ref name="Singh1998">{{cite book |author=U. B. Singh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S30xOPtnzZYC&pg=PA92 |title=Administrative System in India: Vedic Age to 1947 |publisher=APH Publishing |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-7024-928-3 |page=92}}</ref> ''Kshatriya'' being the varna{{efn|''Varna'' is sometimes also termed {{lang|sa|[[Varnashrama Dharma]]}}}} of [[Hinduism]] and {{lang|sa|kulavantas}} meaning the 'head of the {{lang|sa|kula}}, or clan'.<ref name="Sharma1978">{{cite book |author=Tej Ram Sharma |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WcnnB-Lx2MAC&pg=PA72 |title=Personal and Geographical Names in the Gupta Inscriptions |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |year=1978 |page=72 |id=GGKEY:RYD56P78DL9}}</ref>
Shivaji's mother died on 18 June 1674. The Marathas summoned Nischal Puri Goswami, a tantric priest, who declared that the original coronation had been held under inauspicious stars, and a second coronation was needed. This second coronation, on 24 September 1674, mollified those who still believed that Shivaji was not qualified for the Vedic rites of his first coronation, by being a less controversial ceremony.<ref name="Srivastava1964">{{cite book|author=Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava|title=The History of India, 1000 A.D.–1707 A.D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bdw9AAAAMAAJ|year=1964|publisher=Shiva Lal Agarwala|page=701|quote=Shivaji was obliged to undergo a second coronation ceremony on 4th October 1674, on the suggestion of a well-known Tantrik priest, named Nishchal Puri Goswami, who said that Gaga Bhatta had performed the ceremony at an inauspicious hour and neglected to propitiate the spirits adored in the Tantra. That was why, he said, the queen mother Jija Bai had died within twelve days of the ceremony and similar other mishaps had occurred.}}</ref><ref name="Branch1975">{{cite book|author=Indian Institute of Public Administration. Maharashtra Regional Branch|title=Shivaji and swarajya|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ytQgAAAAMAAJ|year=1975|publisher=Orient Longman|page=61|quote=one to establish that Shivaji belonged to the Kshatriya clan and that he could be crowned a Chhatrapati and the other to show that he was not entitled to the Vedic form of recitations at the time of the coronation}}</ref><ref name="Sharma1951">{{cite book|author=Shripad Rama Sharma|title=The Making of Modern India: From A.D. 1526 to the Present Day|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oAUdAAAAMAAJ|year=1951|publisher=Orient Longmans|page=223|quote=The coronation was performed at first according to the Vedic rites, then according to the Tantric. Shivaji was anxious to satisfy all sections of his subjects. There was some doubt about his Kshatriya origin (see note at the end of this chapter). This was of more than academic interest to his contemporaries, especially Brahmans [Brahmins]. Traditionally considered the highest caste in the Hindu social hierarchy. the Brahmans would submit to Shivaji, and officiate at his coronation, only if his}}</ref>
== Conquest in southern India ==
{{Main|Shivaji's Southern Campaign|Battle of Tiruvadi}}
[[File:Tanjore Maratha Kingdom.jpg|thumb|[[Thanjavur Maratha kingdom|Tanjavur Maratha Kingdom]]]]
Beginning in 1674, the Marathas undertook an aggressive campaign, raiding [[Khandesh]] (October), capturing Bijapuri [[Ponda, Goa|Ponda]] (April 1675), [[Karwar]] (mid-year), and [[Kolhapur]] (July).{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=17}} In November, the Maratha navy skirmished with the [[Siddi]]s of [[Janjira State|Janjira]], but failed to dislodge them.<ref name="(India)1967">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXtEAQAAIAAJ|title=Maharashtra State Gazetteers: Maratha period|author=Maharashtra (India)|publisher=Directorate of Government Printing, Stationery and Publications, Maharashtra State|year=1967|page=147}}</ref> Having recovered from an illness, and taking advantage of a civil war that had broken out between the Deccanis and the Afghans at Bijapur, Shivaji raided [[Athani (Karnataka)|Athani]] in April 1676.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=258}}
In the run-up to his expedition, Shivaji appealed to a sense of Deccani patriotism, that Southern India was a homeland that should be protected from outsiders.<ref name="Kruijtzer2009">{{cite book|author=Gijs Kruijtzer|title=Xenophobia in Seventeenth-Century India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTTJa0usl80C|year= 2009|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|isbn=978-90-8728-068-0|pages=153–190}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kulkarni|first1=A. R.|title=Maratha Policy Towards the Adil Shahi Kingdom|journal=Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute|date=1990|volume=49|pages=221–226|jstor=42930290 }}</ref> His appeal was somewhat successful, and in 1677 Shivaji visited [[Hyderabad]] for a month and entered into a treaty with the [[Qutubshah]] of the Golkonda sultanate, who agreed to renounce his alliance with Bijapur and jointly oppose the Mughals. In 1677, Shivaji invaded Karnataka with 30,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry, backed by Golkonda artillery and funding.{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960|p=276}} Proceeding south, Shivaji seized the forts of [[Vellore]] and [[Gingee]];<ref name="Jr.2010">{{cite book| author=Everett Jenkins Jr. |title=The Muslim Diaspora (Volume 2, 1500–1799): A Comprehensive Chronology of the Spread of Islam in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kSYkCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA201|year=2010|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-1-4766-0889-1|pages=201–}}</ref> the latter would later serve as a capital of the Marathas during the reign of his son [[Rajaram I]].{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960|p=290}}
Shivaji intended to reconcile with his half-brother [[Venkoji]] (Ekoji I), Shahaji's son by his second wife, Tukabai (née [[Mohite (clan)|Mohite]]), who ruled [[Thanjavur Maratha kingdom|Thanjavur]] (Tanjore) after Shahaji. The initially promising negotiations were unsuccessful, so whilst returning to Raigad, Shivaji defeated his half-brother's army on 26 November 1677 and seized most of his possessions on the [[Mysore plateau]]. Venkoji's wife Dipa Bai, whom Shivaji deeply respected, took up new negotiations with Shivaji and also convinced her husband to distance himself from his Muslim advisors. In the end, Shivaji consented to turn over to her and her female descendants many of the properties he had seized, with Venkoji consenting to a number of conditions for the proper administration of the territories and maintenance of [[Shahaji|Shahji]]'s tomb ([[Samadhi (shrine)|''samadhi'']]).{{sfn|Sardesai|1957|p=251}}<ref name="Jayapal1997">{{cite book|author=Maya Jayapal|title=Bangalore: the story of a city|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEluAAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Eastwest Books (Madras)|isbn=978-81-86852-09-5|page=20|quote=Shivaji's and Ekoji's armies met in battle on 26 November 1677, and Ekoji was defeated. By the treaty he signed, Bangalore and the adjoining areas were given to Shivaji, who then made them over to Ekoji's wife Deepabai to be held by her, with the proviso that Ekoji had to ensure that Shahaji's Memorial was well tended.}}</ref>
== Death and succession ==
[[File:Sambhaji painting late 17th century.png|thumb|[[Sambhaji]], Shivaji's elder son who succeeded him]]
The question of Shivaji's heir-apparent was complicated. Shivaji confined his son to [[Panhala Fort]] in 1678, only to have the prince escape with his wife and defect to the [[Mughals]] for a year. Sambhaji then returned home, unrepentant, and was again confined to Panhala Fort.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=47}}
Shivaji died around 3–5 April 1680 at the age of 50,{{sfn|Haig & Burn, The Mughal Period|1960|p=278}} on the eve of [[Hanuman Jayanti]]. The cause of Shivaji's death is disputed. British records states that Shivaji died of [[bloody flux]], after being sick for 12 days.{{Efn|As for the cause of his death, the Bombay Council's letter dated 28 April 1680 says: "We have certain news that Shivaji Rajah is dead. It is now 23 days since he deceased, it is said of a bloody flux, being sick 12 days." A contemporaneous Portuguese document states that Shivaji died of anthrax. However, none of these sources provides sufficient details to draw a definite conclusion. The Sabhasad Chronicle states that the King died of fever, while some versions of the A.K. Chronicle state that he died of "navjvar" (possibly typhoid).{{Sfn|Mehendale|2011|p=1147}}}} In a contemporary work in Portuguese, in the Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa, the recorded cause of death of Shivaji is anthrax.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pissurlencar|first=Pandurang Sakharam|title=Portuguese-Mahratta Relations|publisher=Maharashtra State Board for Literature and Culture|pages=61}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite book|last=Mehendale|first=Gajanan Bhaskar|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/801376912|title=Shivaji his life and times|date=2011|publisher=Param Mitra Publications|isbn=978-93-80875-17-0|location=India|pages=1147|oclc=801376912}}</ref> However, Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad, author of ''[[Sabhasad Bakhar]]'', a biography of Shivaji has mentioned fever as the cause of death.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> [[Putalabai]], the childless eldest of the surviving wives of Shivaji committed ''[[Sati (practice)|sati]]'' by jumping into his funeral pyre. Another surviving spouse, Sakwarbai, was not allowed to follow suit because she had a young daughter.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=47}} There were also allegations, though doubted by later scholars, that his second wife [[Soyarabai]] had poisoned him in order to put her 10-year-old son [[Rajaram I|Rajaram]] on the throne.{{sfn|Truschke|2017|p=53}}
After Shivaji's death, Soyarabai made plans, with various ministers, to crown her son Rajaram rather than her stepson [[Sambhaji]]. On 21 April 1680, ten-year-old Rajaram was installed on the throne. However, Sambhaji took possession of [[Raigad Fort]] after killing the commander, and on 18 June acquired control of Raigad, and formally ascended the throne on 20 July.{{sfn|Mehta|2005|p=48}} Rajaram, his mother Soyarabai and wife [[Jankibai|Janki Bai]] were imprisoned, and Soyrabai was executed on charges of conspiracy that October.<ref name="SharmaLāʼibrerī2004">{{cite book|author=Sunita Sharma, K̲h̲udā Bak̲h̲sh Oriyanṭal Pablik Lāʼibrerī|title=Veil, sceptre, and quill: profiles of eminent women, 16th–18th centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2kaAAAAYAAJ|year=2004|publisher=Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library|page=139|quote=By June 1680 three months after Shivaji's death Rajaram was made a prisoner in the fort of Raigad, along with his mother Soyra Bai and his wife Janki Bai. Soyra Bai was put to death on charge of conspiracy.}}</ref>
== Governance ==
=== Ashta Pradhan Mandal ===
{{Main|Ashta Pradhan}}
The Council of Eight Ministers, or ''[[Ashta Pradhan]] Mandal'', was an administrative and advisory council set up by Shivaji.<ref name=":0">{{Britannica|38366|Ashta Pradhan}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kulkarni |first=A. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N45LDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT48 |title=The Marathas |date=2008 |publisher=Diamond Publications |isbn=978-81-8483-073-6 |language=en}}</ref> It consisted of eight ministers who regularly advised Shivaji on political and administrative matters. The eight ministers were as follows:<ref name=":2">{{cite book|last=Mahajan|first=V. D.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/956763986|title=India since 1526|date=2000|publisher=S. Chand|isbn=81-219-1145-1|edition=17th ed., rev. & enl|location=New Delhi|pages=203|oclc=956763986}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none;"
|+Ashta Pradhan Mandal
!Minister
!Duty
|-
|[[Peshwa]] or Prime Minister
|General administration
|-
|[[Amatya]] or Finance Minister
|Maintaining public accounts
|-
|[[Mantri]] or Chronicler
|Maintaining court records
|-
|Summant or [[Dabir]] or Foreign Secretary
|All matters related to relationships with other states
|-
|[[Sachiv]] or Shurn Nawis or Home Secretary
|Managing correspondence of the king
|-
|Panditrao or Ecclesiastical Head
|Religious matters
|-
|Nyayadhis or Chief Justice
|Civil and military justice
|-
|[[Senapati]]/Sari Naubat or Commander-in-Chief
|All matters related to army of the king
|}
Except the Panditrao and Nyayadhis, all other ministers held military commands, their civil duties often being performed by deputies.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" />
=== Promotion of Marathi and Sanskrit ===
At his court, Shivaji replaced Persian, the common courtly language in the region, with Marathi, and emphasised Hindu political and courtly traditions. Shivaji's reign stimulated the deployment of Marathi as a systematic tool of description and understanding.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pollock|first=Sheldon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=740AqMUW8WQC&pg=PA50|title=Forms of Knowledge in Early Modern Asia: Explorations in the Intellectual History of India and Tibet, 1500–1800|date=2011|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-4904-4|page=50|language=en}}</ref> Shivaji's royal seal was in Sanskrit. Shivaji commissioned one of his officials to make a comprehensive lexicon to replace Persian and [[Arabic]] terms with their Sanskrit equivalents. This led to the production of the ''Rājavyavahārakośa'', the thesaurus of state usage in 1677.<ref name=":4" />
=== Religious policy ===
Many modern commentators have deemed Shivaji's religious policies as tolerant. While encouraging Hinduism, Shivaji not only allowed Muslims to practice without harassment, but supported their ministries with endowments.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=421}} When [[Aurangzeb]] imposed the [[Jizya]] tax on [[Kafir|non-Muslim]]s on 3 April 1679, Shivaji wrote an admonishing letter to [[Aurangzeb]] criticising his tax policy. He wrote:
{{blockquote|In strict justice, the Jizya is not at all lawful. If you imagine piety in oppressing and terrorising the Hindus, you ought to first levy the tax on [[Rana Raj Singh|Raj Singh I]], who is the head of Hindus. But to oppress ants and flies is not at all valour nor spirit. If you believe in Quran, God is the lord of all men and not just of Muslims only. Verily, Islam and Hinduism are terms of contrast. They are used by the true Divine Painter for blending the colours and filling in the outlines. If it is a mosque, the call to prayer is chanted in remembrance of God. If it is a temple, the bells are rung in yearning for God alone. To show bigotry to any man's religion and practices is to alter the words of the Holy Book.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gier |first1=Nicholas F. |title=The Origins of Religious Violence: An Asian Perspective |date= 2014 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-9223-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0LBhBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9 |language=en}}</ref>{{sfn|Sardesai|1957|p=250}}|author=|title=|source=}}
Noting that Shivaji had stemmed the spread of the neighbouring Muslim states, his contemporary, the poet [[Kavi Bhushan]] stated:
{{blockquote|Had not there been Shivaji, Kashi would have lost its culture, Mathura would have been turned into a mosque and all would have been circumcised.<ref name="Society1963">{{cite book|author=American Oriental Society|title=Journal of the American Oriental Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K684AAAAIAAJ|access-date=27 September 2012|year=1963|publisher=American Oriental Society|page=476}}</ref>}}
However, Gijs Kruijtzer, in his book ''Xenophobia in Seventeenth-Century India'', argues that the foundation for modern Hindu-Muslim [[Communalism (South Asia)|communalism]] was laid in the decade 1677–1687, in the interplay between Shivaji and Aurangzeb (though Shivaji died in 1680).<ref>Gijs Kruijtzer (2009). ''Xenophobia in Seventeenth-Century India''. Leiden University Press. pp. 8–9.</ref> During the sack of Surat in 1664, Shivaji was approached by Ambrose, a [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin]] friar who asked him to spare the city's Christians. Shivaji left the Christians untouched, saying "the Frankish Padrys are good men."<ref name="Pissurlencar1975">{{cite book|author=Panduronga S. S. Pissurlencar|title=The Portuguese and the Marathas: Translation of Articles of the Late Dr. Pandurang S. Pissurlenkar's Portugueses E Maratas in Portuguese Language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mdoBAAAAMAAJ|year=1975|publisher=State Board for Literature and Culture, Government of Maharashtra|page=152}}</ref>
Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule. He was tolerant of different religions and believed in syncretism. He urged Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect to Hindu beliefs and places. Shivaji had little trouble forming alliances with the surrounding Muslim nations, even against Hindu powers. He also did not join forces with certain other Hindu powers fighting the Mughals, such as the Rajputs.{{Efn|Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule. Over and over, he espoused tolerance and syncretism. He even called on Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect to Hindu beliefs and places. Shivaji had no difficulty in allying with the Muslim states which surrounded him – Bijapur, Golconda, and the Mughals – even against Hindu powers, such as the nayaks of the Karnatic. Further, he did not ally with other Hindu powers, such as the Rajputs, rebelling against the Mughals.{{sfn|Gordon|2007|p=81}}}} His own army had Muslim leaders from early on. The first Pathan unit was formed in 1656. His admiral, Darya Sarang, was a Muslim.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kulkarni |first=A. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OY5LDwAAQBAJ&dq=Darya+Sarang+shivaji&pg=PT143 |title=Medieval Maratha Country |date=July 2008|publisher=Diamond Publications |isbn=978-81-8483-072-9 |language=en}}</ref>
<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
File:Shivaji's letter (1).jpg|Bakhar dedicated to Shivaji
File:Samples of MoDi writing.jpg|Writings of [[Modi script|Modi Script]]. line 2 is from the time of Shivaji
</gallery>
====Ramdas====
Shivaji was a contemporary of [[Samarth Ramdas]]. Historian [[Stewart N. Gordon|Stewart Gordon]] concludes about their relationship:
{{blockquote|Older Maratha histories asserted that Shivaji was a close follower of Ramdas, a Brahmin teacher, who guided him in an orthodox Hindu path; recent research has shown that Shivaji did not meet or know Ramdas until late in his life. Rather, Shivaji followed his own judgement throughout his remarkable career.<ref name="Gordon2007">{{cite book|author=Stewart Gordon|title=The Marathas 1600–1818|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iHK-BhVXOU4C&pg=PR9|date= 2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-03316-9|page=85}}</ref>}}
=== Seal ===
[[File:Shivaji's seal, enlarged.jpg|thumb|Royal seal of Shivaji]]
Seals were a means to confer authenticity on official documents. Shahaji and Jijabai had Persian seals. But Shivaji, right from the beginning, used Sanskrit for his seal.<ref name=":4">{{cite book|last1=Pollock|first1=Sheldon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=740AqMUW8WQC&pg=PA60|title=Forms of Knowledge in Early Modern Asia: Explorations in the Intellectual History of India and Tibet, 1500–1800|date=2011|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-4904-4|page=60|language=en}}</ref> The seal proclaims: "This seal of Shiva, son of Shah, shines forth for the welfare of the people and is meant to command increasing respect from the universe like the first phase of the moon."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Eraly |first1=Abraham |title=Emperors of the Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Moghuls |date= 2007 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-93-5118-093-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7kPQs8llvkC&pg=PT545 |language=en}}</ref>
== Mode of warfare ==
Shivaji maintained a small but effective standing army. The core of Shivaji's army consisted of peasants of Maratha and [[Kunbi]] castes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roy |first1=Kaushik |title=Warfare in Pre-British India – 1500BCE to 1740CE |date=3 June 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-58691-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oh7ICQAAQBAJ&pg=PT149 |language=en}}</ref> Shivaji was aware of the limitations of his army. He realised that conventional warfare methods were inadequate to confront the big, well-trained cavalry of the Mughals, which was equipped with field artillery. As a result, Shivaji mastered [[Guerrilla warfare|guerilla tactics]] which became known as ''Ganimi Kawa'' in the [[Marathi language]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Barua |first1=Pradeep |title=The State at War in South Asia |date=1 January 2005 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-1344-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIIQhuAOGaIC&dq=Shivaji,+realizing+that+he+could+not+defeat+the+imperial+armies+inhttps://books.google.co.in/books&pg=PA40 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Paul |title=Masters of the Battlefield: Great Commanders from the Classical Age to the Napoleonic Era |date=25 July 2013 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-534235-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aRRZ3Zeb4NsC&pg=PA481 |language=en}}</ref> His strategies consistently perplexed and defeated armies sent against him. He realized that the most vulnerable point of the large, slow-moving armies of the time was supply. He utilised knowledge of the local terrain and the superior mobility of his light cavalry to cut off supplies to the enemy.{{sfn|Gordon|2007|p=81}} Shivaji refused to confront the enemy in pitched battles. Instead, he lured the enemies into difficult hills and jungles of his own choosing, catching them at a disadvantage and routing them. Shivaji did not adhere to a particular tactic but used several methods to undermine his enemies, as required by circumstances, such as sudden raids, sweeps and ambushes, and psychological warfare.<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last1=Kantak |first1=M. R. |title=The First Anglo-Maratha War, 1774–1783: A Military Study of Major Battles |date=1993 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |isbn=978-81-7154-696-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdXnVOKKkssC&q=Shivaji&pg=PA8 |language=en}}</ref>
Shivaji was contemptuously called a "Mountain Rat" by [[Aurangzeb]] and his generals, because of his guerilla tactics of attacking enemy forces and then retreating into his mountain forts.<ref name="Wolpert1994">{{cite book|author=Stanley A. Wolpert|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoin00wolp|title=An Introduction to India|publisher=Penguin Books India|year=1994|isbn=978-0-14-016870-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoin00wolp/page/43 43]|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Tinker1990">{{cite book|author=Hugh Tinker|url=https://archive.org/details/southasiashorthi0000tink|title=South Asia: A Short History|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1990|isbn=978-0-8248-1287-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/southasiashorthi0000tink/page/23 23]|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Gordon93" />
=== Military ===
Shivaji demonstrated great skill in creating his military organisation, which lasted until the demise of the Maratha Empire. His strategy rested on leveraging his ground forces, naval forces, and series of forts across his territory. The [[Maval]] infantry served as the core of his ground forces (reinforced by Telangi musketeers from Karnataka) and supported by Maratha cavalry. His artillery was relatively underdeveloped and reliant on European suppliers, further inclining him to a very mobile form of warfare.<ref>{{cite book|first=M. R. |last=Kantak|title=The First Anglo-Maratha War, 1774–1783: A Military Study of Major Battles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdXnVOKKkssC&pg=PA18|year=1993|publisher=Popular Prakashan|isbn=978-81-7154-696-1|page=9}}</ref>
=== Hill forts ===
[[File:Suvela Machi from Balekilla.jpg|thumb|[[Rajgad#Suvela Machee (south east)|Suvela Machi]], view of southern sub-plateaux, as seen from [[Rajgad#Bale Killa (centre)|Ballekilla]], [[Rajgad]]]]
{{Main|Shivaji's forts}}
Hill forts played a key role in Shivaji's strategy. Ramchandra Amatya, one of Shivaji's ministers,  describes the achievement of Shivaji by saying that his empire was created from forts.<ref>Abhang, C. J. (2014). UNPUBLISHED DOCUMENTS OF EAST INDIA COMPANY REGARDING DESTRUCTION OF FORTS IN JUNNER REGION. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 75, 448–454. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44158417</ref> Shivaji captured important Adilshahi forts at Murambdev ([[Rajgad]]), [[Torna Fort|Torna]], Kondhana ([[Sinhagad]]), and [[Purandar fort|Purandar]]. He also rebuilt or repaired many forts in advantageous locations.{{sfn|Pagadi|1983|p=21}} In addition, Shivaji built a number of forts, numbering 111 according to some accounts, but it is likely the actual number "did not exceed 18."<ref name="Naravane1995">{{cite book|author=M. S. Naravane|title=Forts of Maharashtra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sIrfAAAAMAAJ|date=1 January 1995|publisher=APH Publishing Corporation|isbn=978-81-7024-696-1|page=14}}</ref> The historian [[Jadunath Sarkar]] assessed that Shivaji owned some 240–280 forts at the time of his death.{{sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=408}} Each was placed under three officers of equal status, lest a single traitor be bribed or tempted to deliver it to the enemy. The officers acted jointly and provided mutual checks and balances.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=414}}
=== Navy ===
{{Main|Maratha Navy}}
[[File:Sindhudurg watchtower.JPG|thumb|[[Sindhudurg|Sindudurg Fort]] provided anchorages for Shivaji's Navy]]
Aware of the need for naval power to maintain control along the [[Konkan]] coast, Shivaji began to build his navy in 1657 or 1659, with the purchase of twenty [[galivat]]s from the Portuguese shipyards of [[Vasai|Bassein]].<ref name="Roy2011">{{cite book|author=Kaushik Roy|title=War, Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia, 1740–1849|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zp0FbTniNaYC&pg=PA17|date=30 March 2011|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-79087-4|pages=17–}}</ref> Marathi chronicles state that at its height his fleet counted some 400 warships, although contemporary English chronicles counter that the number never exceeded 160.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=59}}
With the Marathas being accustomed to a land-based military, Shivaji widened his search for qualified crews for his ships, taking on lower-caste Hindus of the coast who were long familiar with naval operations (the famed "Malabar pirates"), as well as Muslim mercenaries.{{sfn|Sarkar, History of Aurangzib|1920|p=59}} Noting the power of the Portuguese navy, Shivaji hired a number of Portuguese sailors and Goan Christian converts, and made Rui Leitao Viegas commander of his fleet. Viegas was later to defect back to the Portuguese, taking 300 sailors with him.<ref name="Shastry1981">{{cite book|author=Bhagamandala Seetharama Shastry|title=Studies in Indo-Portuguese History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AsYcAAAAMAAJ|year=1981|publisher=IBH Prakashana}}</ref>
Shivaji fortified his coastline by seizing coastal forts and refurbishing them. He built his first marine fort at [[Sindhudurg Fort|Sindhudurg]], which was to become the headquarters of the Maratha navy.<ref name="RoyLorge2014">{{cite book|author1=Kaushik Roy|author2=Peter Lorge|title=Chinese and Indian Warfare – From the Classical Age to 1870|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=627fBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA183|date=17 December 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-58710-1|pages=183–}}</ref> The navy itself was a [[green-water navy|coastal navy]], focused on travel and combat in the littoral areas, and not intended for the [[high seas]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://optimizeias.com/new-naval-ensign-the-naval-prowess-of-chhatrapati-shivaji-that-has-always-inspired-the-indian-navy/ | title=New Naval Ensign: The naval prowess of Chhatrapati Shivaji that has always inspired the Indian Navy - Optimize IAS | date=3 September 2022 }}</ref><ref name="Misra1986">{{cite book|author=Raj Narain Misra|title=Indian Ocean and India's Security|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_NhVz7mZCisC&pg=PA13|year=1986|publisher=Mittal Publications|pages=13–|id=GGKEY:CCJCT3CW16S}}</ref>
== Legacy ==
[[File:Shivaji Maharaj and Baji Prabhu at Pawan Khind.jpg|right|thumb|An early-20th-century painting by [[M. V. Dhurandhar]] of Shivaji and [[Baji Prabhu Deshpande|Baji Prabhu]] at Pawan Khind]]
Shivaji was well known for his secularism, warrior code of ethics, and exemplary character.{{Sfn|Sarkar, Shivaji and His Times|1920|p=74}}
=== Contemporaneous view ===
Shivaji was admired for his heroic exploits and clever stratagems in the contemporary accounts of English, French, Dutch, Portuguese, and Italian writers.<ref name=":11">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.500042/2015.500042.Foreign-Biographies#page/n15/mode/1up|title=Foreign Biographies of Shivaji|last=Sen|first=Surendra|publisher=London, K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & co. ltd.|year=1928|volume=II|page=xiii}}</ref> Contemporary English writers compared him with [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]], [[Hannibal]], and [[Julius Caesar]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/shivajithegreat035466mbp#page/n28/mode/1up|title=Shivaji The Great|last=Krishna|first=Bal|publisher=The Arya Book Depot Kolhapur|year=1940|pages=11–12}}</ref> The French traveller [[Francois Bernier]] wrote in his ''Travels in Mughal India'':<ref>{{cite book |author=Surendra Nath Sen |title=Foreign Biographies of Shivaji |publisher=K. P. Bagchi |year=1977 |pages=14, 139 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=89sJAQAAIAAJ }}</ref>
<blockquote>I forgot to mention that during pillage of Sourate, Seva-Gy, the Holy Seva-Gi! respected the habitation of the Reverend Father Ambrose, the [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin]] missionary. 'The Frankish Padres are good men', he said 'and shall not be attacked.' He spared also the house of a deceased Delale or Gentile broker, of the Dutch, because assured that he had been very charitable while alive.</blockquote>
[[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] depictions of Shivaji were largely negative, referring to him simply as "Shiva" without the honorific "[[-ji]]". One Mughal writer in the early 1700s described Shivaji's death as {{Sort|ar|''[[kafir]] bi jahannum raft''}} ({{Literal translation|the infidel went to Hell}}).{{sfn|Truschke|2017|p=54}} His chivalrous treatment of enemies and women has been praised by Mughal authors, including Khafi Khan. Jadunath Sarkar writes:<ref name=":12" />
<blockquote>His chivalry to women and strict enforcement of morality in his camp was a wonder in that age and has extorted the admiration of hostile critics like Khafi Khan.</blockquote>
=== Early depictions ===
The earliest depictions of Shivaji by authors not affiliated with Maratha court in Maharashtra are to be found in the [[bakhar]]s that depict Shivaji as an almost divine figure, an ideal Hindu king who overthrew Muslim dominion. The current academic consensus is that while these Bakhars are important for understanding how Shivaji was viewed in his time, they must be correlated with other sources to decide historical truth. ''[[Sabhasad Bakhar]]'' and ''[[91 Kalami Bakhar]]'' are considered the most reliable of all bakhars by scholars.<ref name="Gordon93" />
=== Nineteenth century ===
[[File:Bronze Statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhosle.jpg|thumb|right|A miniature Bronze statue of Shivaji in the collection of the [[Aundh, Satara|Shri Bhavani Museum of Aundh]]]]
In the mid–19th century, Marathi social reformer [[Jyotirao Phule]] wrote his interpretation of the Shivaji legend, portraying him as a hero of the [[Shudra|shudras]] and [[dalit]]s. Phule's 1869 ballad-form story of Shivaji was met with great hostility by the Brahmin-dominated media.<ref name="Chakravarti2014">{{cite book|author=Uma Chakravarti|title=Rewriting History: The Life and Times of Pandita Ramabai|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9TenDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT79|year=2014|publisher=Zubaan|isbn=978-93-83074-63-1|pages=79–}}</ref>
In 1895, the Indian nationalist leader [[Lokmanya Tilak]] organised what was to be an annual festival to mark the birthday of Shivaji.{{sfn|Wolpert|1962|pp=79–81}} He portrayed Shivaji as the "opponent of the oppressor", with possible negative implications concerning the colonial government.<ref name="Pati2011">{{cite book|author=Biswamoy Pati|title=Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Popular Readings|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U4TWzCkjrm4C&pg=PA101|year=2011|publisher=Primus Books|isbn=978-93-80607-18-4|page=101}}</ref> Tilak denied any suggestion that his festival was anti-Muslim or disloyal to the government, but simply a celebration of a hero.{{Sfn|Cashman, The Myth of the Lokamanya|1975|p=107}} These celebrations prompted a British commentator in 1906 to note: "Cannot the annals of the Hindu race point to a single hero whom even the tongue of slander will not dare call a chief of [[Dacoity|dacoits]]...?"<ref>{{cite book|title=Indo-British Review|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CA1uAAAAMAAJ|publisher=Indo-British Historical Society|page=75}}</ref>
One of the first commentators to reappraise the critical British view of Shivaji was [[M. G. Ranade]], whose ''Rise of the Maratha Power'' (1900) declared Shivaji's achievements as the beginning of modern nation-building. Ranade criticised earlier British portrayals of Shivaji's state as "a freebooting power, which thrived by plunder and adventure, and succeeded only because it was the most cunning and adventurous&nbsp;... This is a very common feeling with the readers, who derive their knowledge of these events solely from the works of English historians."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V4-Su0whKa0C&pg=PA121|title=India's Immortal Comic Books: Gods, Kings, and Other Heroes|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-253-22052-3|first=Karline |last=McLain|page=121}}</ref>
In 1919, [[Jadunath Sarkar|Sarkar]] published the seminal Shivaji and His Times. Sarkar was able to read primary sources in Persian, Marathi, and Arabic, but was challenged for his criticism of the "chauvinism" of Marathi historians' views of Shivaji.<ref name="Deshpande2007">{{cite book|author=Prachi Deshpande|title=Creative Pasts: Historical Memory and Identity in Western India, 1700–1960|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=96qrAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136|year=2007|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-12486-7|pages=136–|quote=Shivaji and His Times, was widely regarded as the authoritative follow-up to Grant Duff. An erudite, painstaking Rankean scholar, Sarkar was also able to access a wide variety of sources through his mastery of Persian, Marathi, and Arabic, but as explained in the last chapter, he earned considerable hostility from the Poona [Pune] school for his sharp criticism of the "chauvinism" he saw in Marathi historians' appraisals of the Marathas}}</ref> Likewise, although supporters cheered his depiction of the killing of [[Afzal Khan (general)|Afzal Khan]] as justified, they decried Sarkar's terming as "murder" the killing of the [[Hindus|Hindu]] [[raja]] Chandrao More and his clan.<ref name="Bayly2011">{{cite book|author=C. A. Bayly|title=Recovering Liberties: Indian Thought in the Age of Liberalism and Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0GLAWY6L8fIC&pg=PA282|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-50518-5|pages=282–}}</ref>
In 1937, [[Dennis Kincaid]], a British civil servant in India, published ''[[The Grand Rebel]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dennis Kincaid |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.283296 |title=The Grand Rebel |date=1937}}</ref> This book portrays Shivaji as a heroic rebel and a master strategist fighting a much larger Mughal army.<ref name="Gordon93" />
=== Post independence ===
[[File:Shivaji Maharaj Raigad2.jpg|thumb|Statue of Shivaji at [[Raigad Fort]]]]
In modern times, Shivaji is considered as a national hero in India,<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |date=19 February 2015 |title='Chatrapati Shivaji was a national hero' |language=en-IN |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/chatrapati-shivaji-was-a-national-hero/article6915168.ece |access-date=12 August 2023 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |date=22 May 2003 |title=Appropriating a national hero |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/columns/article30217102.ece |access-date=12 August 2023 |website=Frontline |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite web |date=3 June 2015 |title=BBC Radio 4 in Four, Shivaji: An icon of Hindu pride |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p02stvy6 |access-date=12 August 2023 |website=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref> especially in the state of Maharashtra, where he remains an important figure in the state's history. Stories of his life form an integral part of the upbringing and identity of the [[Marathi people]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuber |first=Girish |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1245346175 |title=Renaissance State : the unwritten story of the making of maharashtra. |date=2021 |publisher=Harper Collins India |isbn=978-93-90327-39-3 |location=[S.l.] |pages=69–78 |oclc=1245346175}}</ref>
[[Hindutva]] activists are noted for appropriating Shivaji by presenting him as "Hindu king" who "fought against Muslim rulers", contrary to historic accounts that show he belonged to a marginalised caste and held secular values.<ref name="r146">{{cite web | last=Ganeshan | first=Balakrishna | title=Shivaji statues in Telangana: BJP's politics of Hindu right-wing iconography, Dalit backlash | website=Newslaundry | date=2023-11-06 | url=https://www.newslaundry.com/2023/11/06/shivaji-statues-in-telangana-bjps-politics-of-hindu-right-wing-iconography-dalit-backlash | access-date=2024-10-13}}</ref><ref name="q235">{{cite web | last=Daniyal | first=Shoaib | title=Protector of Brahmins or peasant king? Why a historian of Shivaji is on Sanatan Sanstha's hitlist | website=Scroll.in | date=2018-09-09 | url=https://scroll.in/article/893168/protector-of-brahmins-or-peasant-king-why-a-historian-of-shivaji-is-on-sanatan-sansthas-hitlist | access-date=2024-10-12}}</ref><ref name="j001">{{cite book | last1=Jayawardena | first1=K. | last2=de Alwis | first2=M. | title=Embodied Violence: Communalising Female Sexuality in South Asia | publisher=Bloomsbury Academic | series=ACLS Humanities E-Book | year=1996 | isbn=978-1-85649-448-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i2AObmt7Z8wC&pg=PA163 | access-date=2024-10-13 | page=163}}</ref>
==== Political parties ====
In 1966, the [[Shiv Sena (1966–2022)|Shiv Sena]] ({{Literal translation|Army of Shivaji}}) political party was formed to promote the interests of Marathi-speaking people in the face of migration to Maharashtra from other parts of India, and the accompanying loss of power of locals. His image adorns literature, propaganda, and icons of the party.<ref name="Naipaul2011">{{cite book |last=Naipaul |first=V. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYeWbmq7pkIC&pg=PT65 |title=India: A Wounded Civilization |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-307-78934-1 |page=65 |author-link=V. S. Naipaul}}</ref>
Shivaji is seen as a hero by regional political parties and also by the Maratha-caste-dominated [[Indian National Congress]] and the [[Nationalist Congress Party]].{{sfn|Laine|2011|p=164}}
=== Controversies related to Shivaji's depiction ===
In the late 20th century, [[Babasaheb Purandare]] became one of the most significant authors in portraying Shivaji in his writings, leading him to be declared in 1964 as the ''Shiv-Shahir'' ({{Literal translation|Bard of Shivaji}}).<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlZPAQAAMAAJ |title=Lok Sabha Debates |publisher=Lok Sabha Secretariat |year=1952 |page=121 |quote=Will the Minister of Education, Social Welfare and Culture be pleased to state: (a) whether Shri Shivshahir Bawa Saheb Purandare of Maharashtra has sought the permission of Central Government&nbsp;...}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eLtjAAAAMAAJ |title=The Indian P.E.N. |publisher=P.E.N. All-India Centre. |year=1964 |page=32 |quote=Sumitra Raje Bhonsale of Satara honoured Shri Purandare with the title of "Shiva-shahir" and donated Rs. 301 for the proposed publication.}}</ref> However, Purandare, a Brahmin, was also accused of overstating the influence of Brahmin gurus on Shivaji,{{sfn|Laine|2011|p=164}} and his [[Maharashtra Bhushan]] award ceremony in 2015 was protested by those claiming he had defamed Shivaji.<ref>{{cite news |author=Krishna Kumar |date=20 August 2015 |title=Writer Babasaheb Purandare receives 'Maharashtra Bhushan' despite protests |newspaper=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/writer-babasaheb-purandare-receives-maharashtra-bhushan-despite-protests/articleshow/48551741.cms}}</ref>
In 1993, the ''[[The Illustrated Weekly of India|Illustrated Weekly]]'' published an article suggesting that Shivaji was not opposed to Muslims ''per se'', and that his style of governance was influenced by that of the Mughal Empire. Congress Party members called for legal actions against the publisher and writer, Marathi newspapers accused them of "imperial prejudice", and [[Shiv Sena (1966–2022)|Shiv Sena]] called for the writer's public flogging. Maharashtra brought legal action against the publisher under regulations prohibiting enmity between religious and cultural groups, but a High Court found that the ''Illustrated Weekly'' had operated within the bounds of freedom of expression.<ref>{{cite book|first=Thomas Blom |last=Hansen|title=Wages of Violence: Naming and Identity in Postcolonial Bombay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-y3iNt0djbQC&pg=PA22|year=2001|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-08840-3|page=22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first1=Raminder |last1=Kaur|first2=William |last2=Mazzarella|title=Censorship in South Asia: Cultural Regulation from Sedition to Seduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1QOWRn_i1kcC&pg=PA1|year=2009|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-35335-1|page=1}}</ref>
[[File:Emperor of Maratha India.jpg|thumb|Statue of Shivaji opposite the [[Gateway of India]] in [[South Mumbai]]]]
In 2003, the American academic [[James W. Laine]] published his book ''Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India'' to, what [[Ananya Vajpeyi]] terms, a regime of "cultural policing by militant Marathas".<ref name=":5">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3561499.stm |title=India seeks to arrest US scholar |work=BBC News |date=23 March 2004 |access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vajpeyi |first=Ananya |date=August 2004 |title=The Past and its Passions: Writing History in Hard Times |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/025764300402000207 |journal=Studies in History |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=317–329 |doi=10.1177/025764300402000207 |s2cid=162555504 |issn=0257-6430|url-access=subscription }}</ref> As a result of this publication, the [[Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute]], in Pune, where Laine had done research, was attacked by the [[Sambhaji Brigade]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/Maratha-activists-vandalise-Bhandarkar-Institute/articleshow/407226.cms |newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|title= 'Maratha' activists vandalise Bhandarkar Institute |access-date=3 May 2021 |date=6 January 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Where The Stream Of Reason Lost Its Way... |url=https://www.financialexpress.com/archive/where-the-stream-of-reason-lost-its-way/73400/ |access-date=3 May 2021 |work=Financial Express |date=12 January 2004}}</ref> Laine was even threatened with arrest,<ref name=":5" /> and the book was banned in [[Maharashtra]] in January 2004. The ban was lifted by the [[Bombay High Court]] in 2007, and in July 2010 the [[Supreme Court of India]] upheld the lifting of the ban.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Supreme-Court-lifts-ban-on-James-Laines-book-on-Shivaji/articleshow/6148410.cms|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811082818/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-07-09/india/28276644_1_kunda-pramila-ban-apex-court|url-status=live|archive-date=11 August 2011|title=Supreme Court lifts ban on James Laine's book on Shivaji|date=9 July 2010|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=25 September 2013}}</ref> This lifting was followed by public demonstrations against the author and the decision of the Supreme Court.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.webindia123.com/news/Articles/India/20100710/1545431.html|title=Protests over James Laine's book across Mumbai|publisher=webindia123.com|date=10 July 2010|access-date=25 September 2013|archive-date=29 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130929072624/http://news.webindia123.com/news/Articles/India/20100710/1545431.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Rahul Chandawarkar|date=10 July 2010|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report_hard-liners-slam-state-supreme-court-decision-on-laine-s-shivaji-book_1407732|title=Hard-liners slam state, Supreme Court decision on Laine's Shivaji book|newspaper=DNA India|access-date= 25 September 2013}}</ref>
== Commemorations ==
Statues of Shivaji are found in every [[Tehsil|taluka]] in Maharashtra<ref>{{Cite web |last=Khapre |first=Shubhangi |date=2024-08-30 |title=In Maharashtra, everybody loves a Shivaji statue |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/in-maharashtra-everybody-loves-a-shivaji-statue-9540926/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240830040804/https://indianexpress.com/article/political-pulse/in-maharashtra-everybody-loves-a-shivaji-statue-9540926/ |archive-date=2024-08-30 |access-date=2024-11-18 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=Nath |first=Dipanita |date=2022-02-19 |title=Shiv Jayanti Special: The story behind world's first equestrian statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji in Pune |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/shiv-jayanti-chhatrapati-shivaji-statue-pune-7781082/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240827175018/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/pune/shiv-jayanti-chhatrapati-shivaji-statue-pune-7781082/ |archive-date=2024-08-27 |access-date=2024-11-18 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref> as well as in many places across India, including Mumbai,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Ahmed |first=Aroosa |date=2017-08-11 |title=Mumbai to get sixth Shivaji statue outside CST |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/mumbai-to-get-sixth-shivaji-statue-outside-cst/ |work=Hindustan Times}}</ref> [[Pune]],<ref name=":8" /> [[New Delhi]],<ref>{{cite web |date=29 April 2003 |title=Kalam unveils Shivaji statue |url=http://www.hindu.com/2003/04/29/stories/2003042907691200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928043424/http://www.hindu.com/2003/04/29/stories/2003042907691200.htm |archive-date=28 September 2013 |access-date=17 September 2012 |work=[[The Hindu]]}}</ref> [[Surat]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Saiyed |first=Kamaal |date=2012-07-15 |title=Modi unveils Shivaji statue at Limbayat |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/modi-unveils-shivaji-statue-at-limbayat/974660 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031192820/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/modi-unveils-shivaji-statue-at-limbayat/974660 |archive-date=2013-10-31 |access-date=17 September 2012 |work=The Indian Express}}</ref> and [[Yellur, Belgaum|Yellur]].<ref>{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2023-03-05 |title=Descendant of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj again unveils statue at Rajhansgad Fort |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/descendant-of-chhatrapati-shivaji-maharaj-again-unveils-statue-at-rajhansgad-fort/article66584315.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305173738/https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/descendant-of-chhatrapati-shivaji-maharaj-again-unveils-statue-at-rajhansgad-fort/article66584315.ece |archive-date=2023-03-05 |access-date=2024-11-19 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> There are also statues outside of India including in [[San Jose, California]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Campbell |first=Justin |date=2023-02-10 |title=San Jose statue depicting heroic Indian ruler found after being stolen |url=https://www.kron4.com/news/bay-area/san-jose-statue-depicting-heroic-indian-ruler-found-after-being-stolen/ |work=KRON4}}</ref> and [[Mauritius]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Deshpande |first=Abhinay |date=2023-04-28 |title=Fadnavis unveils Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj's statue in Mauritius |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/fadnavis-unveils-chhatrapati-shivaji-maharajs-statue-in-mauritius/article66790571.ece |access-date=2024-11-19 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>
[[File:Killa, Konavade.jpg|thumb|A replica of [[Raigad Fort]] built by children on occasion of Diwali as a tribute to Shivaji.]]
Several Mumbai landmarks were renamed for Shivaji in the 1990s, around the same time that Bombay was renamed Mumbai.<ref name="DNATakeHomeArticle">{{cite web |title=Now, you can take museum relics home from Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-now-you-can-take-museum-relics-home-from-chhatrapati-shivaji-maharaj-vastu-sangrahalaya-1890382 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170816205604/http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-now-you-can-take-museum-relics-home-from-chhatrapati-shivaji-maharaj-vastu-sangrahalaya-1890382 |archive-date=16 August 2017 |access-date=30 June 2015 |website=www.dnaindia.com |publisher=Diligent Media Corporation Ltd.}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> The Prince of Wales Museum, which is devoted to Indian history, was renamed [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya]].<ref name="DNATakeHomeArticle" /> Victoria Terminus, Mumbai's main railway station and the headquarters of the [[Central Railway zone]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-10-20 |title=Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Chhatrapati-Shivaji-Terminus |access-date=2024-11-18 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en}}</ref> was initially renamed [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus]] and later renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus.<ref name=":1">{{cite news |last1= |first1= |date=2017 |title=Mumbai Railway station renamed to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/mumbai-railway-station-renamed-to-chhatrapati-shivaji-maharaj-terminus/articleshow/59390999.cms |access-date=14 January 2018 |newspaper=Times of India |issue=30 June}}</ref> Similarly, Mumbai's busiest airport, Sahar International Airport, was first renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport and further renamed to [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-08-30 |title=Mumbai airport renamed as Chhatrapati Shivaji 'Maharaj' International Airport |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/mumbai-airport-chhatrapati-shivaji-maharaj-international-airport-5333252/ |access-date=2024-11-18 |website=The Indian Express |language=en}}</ref>
Other commemorations include the Indian Navy's [[INS Shivaji]] station<ref>{{cite web |url=http://indiannavy.nic.in/training/navy-training/ins-shivaji-engineering-training-establishment |title=INS Shivaji (Engineering Training Establishment) : Training |publisher=Indian Navy |access-date=17 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718031536/http://indiannavy.nic.in/training/navy-training/ins-shivaji-engineering-training-establishment |archive-date=18 July 2012 }}</ref> and numerous [[postage stamp]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indianpost.com/viewstamp.php/Paper/Watermarked%20paper/CHHATRAPATI%20SHIVAJI%20MAHARAJ |title=Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj |publisher=Indianpost.com |date=21 April 1980 |access-date=17 September 2012}}</ref> In 2022, the Indian prime minister unveiled the new ensign of the [[Indian Navy]], which was inspired by the seal of Shivaji.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2 September 2022 |title=Prime Minister Narendra Modi unveils Indian Navy's new ensign |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/prime-minister-narendra-modi-unveils-indian-navys-new-ensign/article65839843.ece |access-date=9 August 2023 |work=The Hindu |language=en-IN |issn=0971-751X}}</ref> In Maharashtra, there has been a long tradition of children building replica forts with toy soldiers and other figures during the festival of [[Diwali]], in memory of Shivaji.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/Shivaji-killas-express-pure-reverence/articleshow/6837729.cms | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104080547/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-10-29/pune/28232881_1_forts-historian-ninad-bedekar-diyas | url-status=live | archive-date=4 November 2012 | work=[[The Times of India]] | title=Shivaji killas express pure reverence | date=29 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Laine |first=James W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__pQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |title=Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India |year=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-972643-1 |language=en}}</ref>
A proposal to build a giant memorial called [[Shiv Smarak]] was approved in 2016; the memorial is to be located near Mumbai on a small island in the Arabian Sea. It will be {{convert|210|m}} tall, which will make it the [[List of tallest statues|world's tallest statue]] when completed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.yahoo.com/india-now-boasts-world-apos-190059518.html |title=India Now Boasts The World's Tallest Statue, And It's Twice Lady Liberty's Size |work=[[Huffington Post]] |via=[[Yahoo! News]] |author=Nina Golgowski |date=31 October 2018 |access-date=31 October 2018}}</ref> As of August 2021, the project has been stalled since January 2019, due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic in India|COVID-19 pandemic]]. Only the [[bathymetry]] survey has been completed, while the [[Geotechnical investigation|geotechnical survey]] was underway. Consequently, the state public works department proposed extending the completion date by a year, from 18 October 2021 to 18 October 2022.<ref name=connect2>{{cite web|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/mumbai/contract-for-shivaji-memorial-project-pwd-proposes-extension-of-one-year-to-firm-without-cost-escalation-7466001/ |title= Contract for Shivaji Memorial Project, PWD proposes extension of one year to firm without cost escalation  |website= indianexpress.com |date=23 August 2021 |accessdate=6 December 2021}}</ref>
== Sources ==
=== Notes ===
{{notelist|40em}}
=== References ===
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name="Kulkarni1963">{{cite book |author=V. B. Kulkarni |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nU8_AAAAMAAJ |title=Shivaji: The Portrait of a Patriot |publisher=Orient Longman |year=1963}}</ref>
}}
=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{Cite journal |last=Jasper |first=Daniel |date=2003 |title=Commemorating the 'golden age' of Shivaji in Maharashtra, India, and the development of Maharashtrian public politics |journal=Journal of Political and Military Sociology |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=215–230 |jstor=45293740 |s2cid=152003918}}
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{{refend}}
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |title=Chhatrapati Shivaji: Coronation Tercentenary Commemoration Volume |date=1974–1975 |publisher=[[University of Bombay]] |editor-last=Apte |editor-first=B. K. |location=Bombay |oclc=3032928}}
* {{Cite book |last=Laine |first=James W. |author-link=James W. Laine |url=https://archive.org/details/shivajihinduking0000lain |title=Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-514126-9 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Pearson |first=M. N. |date=1976b |title=Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2053980 |journal=[[Journal of Asian Studies]] |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=221–235 |doi=10.2307/2053980 |jstor=2053980 |s2cid=162482005 |url-access=subscription |ref={{SfnRef|Pearson, Shivaji and Mughal decline|1976}}}}
{{refend}}
== External links ==
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{{Commons category}}{{EB1911 poster|Sivaji|Shivaji}}
* {{Wikiquote-inline|Shivaji}}
{{S-start}}
{{s-hou|[[House of Bhonsle]]||{{circa|1627/1630}}|3 April|1680}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-new
| reason = new state formed
}}
{{s-ttl
| title = [[Chhatrapati]] of the [[Maratha Empire]]
| years = 1674–1680
}}
{{s-aft
| after = [[Sambhaji]]
}}
{{S-end}}
{{Portal bar|Biography|Hinduism|Royalty|India|History}}{{Shivaji|state=collapsed}}
{{MarathaEmpire|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Shivaji| ]]
[[Category:1630 births]]
[[Category:1680 deaths]]
[[Category:17th-century Indian monarchs]]
[[Category:Marathi people]]
[[Category:Indian warriors]]
[[Category:Indian Hindus]]
[[Category:Hindu monarchs]]
[[Category:Maratha kings]]
[[Category:Infectious disease deaths in India]]
[[Category:Age controversies]]
[[Category:Founding monarchs]]
[[Category:People from the Sultanate of Bijapur]]