View source for Snowshoe hare

{{Short description|Species of mammal}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Speciesbox
| name = Snowshoe hare<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Hoffmann| pages = 195}}</ref>
| image = Lepus americanus 5459 cropped.jpg
| image_caption = Summer coat, photographed in [[Olympic National Park]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]]
| image2 = Snowshoe Hare, Shirleys Bay.jpg
| image2_caption = Winter coat, photographed near [[Shirleys Bay]], [[Ontario]]
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 12 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Mills, L. |author2=Smith, A.T. |date=2019 |title=''Lepus americanus'' |volume=2019 |page=e.T41273A45185466 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T41273A45185466.en |access-date=12 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Lepus
| species = americanus
| authority = [[Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben|Erxleben]], 1777
| range_map = Lepus americanus map.svg
| range_map_caption = Snowshoe hare range
}}
The '''snowshoe hare''' ('''''Lepus americanus'''''), also called the '''varying hare''' or '''snowshoe rabbit''', is a species of [[hare]] found in [[North America]]. It has the name "snowshoe" because of the large size of its hind feet. The animal's feet prevent it from sinking into the snow when it hops and walks. Its feet also have fur on the soles to protect it from freezing temperatures.
For [[camouflage]], its fur turns white during the winter and rusty brown during the summer. Its flanks are white year-round. The snowshoe hare is also distinguishable by the black tufts of fur on the edge of its ears. Its ears are shorter than those of most other hares.
In summer, it feeds on plants such as [[grass]], [[fern]]s, and [[Leaf|leaves]]; in winter, it eats twigs, the bark from trees, and plants and, similar to the [[Arctic hare]], has been known to occasionally eat dead animals.<ref>{{cite web |title = Snowshoe Hare |work = eNature: FieldGuides |year = 2007 |url = http://www.enature.com/fieldguides/detail.asp?curFamilyID=556&curGroupID=5&lgfromWhere=&curPageNum=2 |access-date = 2008-03-23}}</ref> It can sometimes be seen feeding in small groups. This animal is mainly active at night and does not [[Hibernation|hibernate]]. The snowshoe hare may have up to four litters in a year, which average three to eight young. Males compete for females, and females may breed with several males.
A major [[predator]] of the snowshoe hare is the [[Canada lynx]]. Historical records of animals caught by [[Fur trade|fur hunters]] over hundreds of years show the lynx and hare numbers rising and falling in a cycle, which has made the hare known to biology students worldwide as a case study of the [[Predation#Population dynamics|relationship between numbers of predators and their prey]].<ref name=krebs>{{cite journal |last1=Krebs |first1=C. J. |last2=Boonstra |first2=R. |last3=Boutin |first3=S. |last4=Sinclair |first4=A. R. |year=2001 |title=What Drives the 10-year Cycle of Snowshoe Hares? |journal=AIBS Bulletin |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=25–35|url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/359/2/krebs.2001%20bioscience.pdf }}</ref><ref name="The Snowshoe Hare 10-year Cycle – A Cautionary Tale">{{cite web |first1=Charles|last1=Krebs|first2=Judy |last2=Myers |name-list-style=amp |title=The Snowshoe Hare 10-year Cycle – A Cautionary Tale |url=https://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~krebs/ecological_rants/?p=786 |website=Ecological Rants |publisher=University of British Columbia |access-date=7 October 2015|date=12 July 2014}}</ref><ref name="BBC Bitesize – Predators and their prey">{{cite web |title=Predators and their prey |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/ocr_gateway/understanding_environment/interdependencerev2.shtml |website=BBC Bitesize |publisher=[[BBC]] |access-date=7 October 2015}}</ref>
== Taxonomy and distribution ==
Snowshoe hares occur from [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] to [[Alaska]]; south in the [[Sierra Nevada]] to central California; in the Rocky Mountains to southern [[Utah]] and northern New Mexico; and in the [[Appalachian Mountains]] to [[West Virginia]].<ref name=r9 /> Populations in its southern range, such as in [[Ohio]], [[Maryland]], [[North Carolina]], [[New Jersey]], [[Tennessee]], and [[Virginia]] have been [[extirpated]].<ref>{{cite web |title=NatureServe Explorer 2.0 |url=https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.104729/Lepus_americanus |website=explorer.natureserve.org |access-date=23 September 2022}}</ref> Locations of subspecies are as follows:<ref name=r38>Hall, E. Raymond. (1981). ''The mammals of North America''. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. New York: John Wiley and Sons. {{ISBN|1-930665-31-8}}.</ref>
*''Lepus americanus americanus'' (Erxleben) – Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, Montana, and North Dakota
*''L. a. cascadensis'' (Nelson) – British Columbia and Washington
*''L. a. columbiensis'' (Rhoads) – British Columbia, Alberta, and Washington
*''L. a. dalli'' (Merriam) – Mackenzie District, British Columbia, Alaska, Yukon
*''L. a. klamathensis'' (Merriam) – Oregon and California
*''L. a. oregonus'' (Orr) – Oregon
*''L. a. pallidus'' (Cowan) – British Columbia
*''L. a. phaeonotus'' (J. A. Allen) – Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota
*''L. a. pineus'' (Dalquest) – British Columbia, Idaho, and Washington
*''L. a. seclusus'' (Baker and Hankins) – Wyoming
*''L. a. struthopus'' (Bangs) – Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Maine
*''L. a. tahoensis'' (Orr) – California, western Nevada
*''L. a. virginianus'' (Harlan) – Ontario, Quebec, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania
*''L. a. washingtonii'' (Baird) – British Columbia, Washington, and Oregon
==Description==
The snowshoe hare's fur is rusty brown in the spring and summer, and white in the winter. It also always has a gray underbelly, and black on the tips and edges of its ears and tail. It has very large hind feet, and dense fur on their soles. The snowshoe hare's ears are not as long as some other species of hares' ears. In the winter, it turns a bright white to blend in with the snow.
Snowshoe hares range in length from 413 to 518&nbsp;mm (16.3 to 20.4 in), of which 39 to 52&nbsp;mm (1.5 to 2.0 in) are tail. The hind foot, long and broad, measures 117 to 147&nbsp;mm (4.6  to 5.8 in) in length. The ears are 62 to 70&nbsp;mm (2.4 to 2.8 in) from notch to tip. Snowshoe hares usually weigh between 1.43 and 1.55&nbsp;kg (3.15 to 3.42 lb). Males are slightly smaller than females, as is typical for leporids. In the summer, the coat is a grizzled rusty or grayish brown, with a blackish middorsal line, buffy flanks and a white belly. The face and legs are cinnamon brown. The ears are brownish with black tips and white or creamy borders. During the winter, the fur is almost entirely white, except for black eyelids and the blackened tips on the ears. The soles of the feet are densely furred, with stiff hairs (forming the snowshoe) on the hind feet.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Shefferly |first1=Nancy |title=Lepus americanus |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Lepus_americanus/ |website=Animal Diversity Web |access-date=14 November 2020}}</ref>
== Habitat ==
[[File:SNOWSHOE HARE (Lepus americanus) (8-20-13) stunner c g, n-w conejos co, co (2) (9592453799).jpg|thumb|left|Snowshoe hare in a dense shrub layer]]
Snowshoe hares are primarily found in areas with dense plant coverage such as [[boreal forests]], upper montane forests and wetlands, though are occasionally seen in more open areas like agricultural land.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Northwest wildlife preservation society |title=Snowshoe hare |url=https://www.northwestwildlife.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/snowshoe-hare-new.pdf}}</ref>
In Utah, snowshoe hares used Gambel oak (''Quercus gambelli'') in the northern portion of the Gambel oak range.<ref>Harper, Kimball T.; Wagstaff, Fred J.; Kunzler, Lynn M. (1985). Biology management of the Gambel oak vegetative type: a literature review. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-179. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station</ref> In the Southwest, the southernmost populations of snowshoe hares occur in
the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, New Mexico, in subalpine scrub: narrow bands of shrubby and prostrate conifers at and just below timberline that are usually composed of [[Picea engelmannii|Engelmann spruce]], [[bristlecone pine]], [[Pinus flexilis|limber pine]], and [[Juniperus communis|juniper]].<ref name="r12">{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=David E. |year=1982 |url=https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/550946/dp_04_01-04.pdf |title=Subalpine scrub |editor-last1=Brown |editor-first1=David E. |trans-title=Biotic communities of the American Southwest—United States and Mexico |journal=Desert Plants |volume=4 |issue=1–4 |pages=81}}</ref>
In Minnesota, snowshoe hares are found in uplands and wetlands.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Pietz, Pamela J. |author2=Tester, John R. |year=1983|jstor=3808604 |title=Habitat selection by snowshoe hares in North Central Minnesota|journal= Journal of Wildlife Management|volume= 47|issue=3|pages= 686–696|doi=10.2307/3808604}}</ref> In [[New England]], snowshoe hares favor second-growth forests.
== Reproduction and leverets ==
[[File:Lepus americanus 5646.JPG|thumb|Juveniles are usually more active and less cautious than adults.]]
Like all [[Leporidae|leporids]], snowshoe hares are [[Crepuscular animal|crepuscular]] and [[Nocturnality|nocturnal]]. They are shy and secretive and spend most of the day in shallow depressions, called forms, scraped out under clumps of ferns, brush thickets, and downed piles of timber. They occasionally use the large burrows of mountain beavers (''Aplodontia rufa'') as forms. Diurnal activity level increases during the breeding season. Juveniles are usually more active and less cautious than adults.<ref name=r53 />
Snowshoe hares are active year-round. The breeding season for hares is stimulated by new vegetation and varies with latitude, location, and yearly events (such as weather conditions and phase of snowshoe hare population cycle).<ref name=r9 /><ref name=r35 /> Breeding generally begins in late December to January and lasts until July or August .<ref name=r53 /><ref name=r35 /> In northwestern Oregon, male peak breeding activity (as determined by testes weight) occurs in May and is at the minimum in November. In Ontario, the peak is in May and in Newfoundland, the peak is in June. Female estrus begins in March in Newfoundland, Alberta, and Maine, and in early April in Michigan and Colorado. First litters of the year are born from mid-April to May.<ref name=r9 />
[[File:Snowshoe Hare (6187109754).jpg|thumb|Snowshoe hares are most active in twilight and at night, but are active year-round. This hare is seen as breeding season begins, in late April in Alaska.]]
The gestation period is 35 to 40 days; most studies report 37 days as the average length of gestation. Litters average three to five leverets depending on latitude, elevation, and phase of population cycle, ranging from one to seven.<ref name=r9 /><ref name=r53 /> Deep snow-pack increases the amount of upper-branch browse available to snowshoe hares in winter, and therefore has a positive relationship with the nutritional status of breeding adults. Litters are usually smaller
in the southern sections of their range since there is less snow. Newborns are fully furred, open-eyed, and mobile. They leave the natal form within a short time after birth, often within 24 hours. After leaving the birthplace, siblings stay near each other during the day, gathering once each evening to nurse.<ref name=r9 /><ref name=r53 /> Weaning occurs at 25 to 28 days except for the last litter of the season, which may nurse for two months or longer.<ref name=r64>{{cite journal |author1=Rongstad, Orrin J. |author2=Tester, John R. |year=1971|jstor=3799610 |title=Behavior and maternal relations of young snowshoe hares |journal=Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=338–346 |doi=10.2307/3799610}}</ref>
Female snowshoe hares can become pregnant anytime after the 35th day of gestation. The second litter can therefore be conceived before the first litter is born (snowshoe hares have twin uteri).<ref name=r9 /> Pregnancy rates ranged from 78 to 100% for females during the period of first litter production, 82 to 100% for second litters, and for the periods of third and fourth litters pregnancy rates vary with population cycle. In Newfoundland, the average number of litters per female per year ranged from 2.9 to 3.5, and in Alberta the range was from 2.7 to 3.3.<ref name=r9 /> The number of litters per year varies with phase of population cycle (see below). In Alberta the average number of litters per year was almost 3 just after a population peak and 4 just after the population low. Females normally first breed as 1-year-olds. Juvenile breeding is rare and has only been observed in females from the first litter of the year and only in years immediately following a low point in the population cycle.<ref name=r9 />
In Yukon, 30-day survival of radio-tagged leverets was 46%, 15%, and 43% for the first, second, and third litters of the year, respectively. There were no differences in mortality in plots with food added. The main proximate cause of mortality was predation by small mammals, including red squirrels (''Tamiasciurus hudsonicus'') and Arctic ground squirrels (''Spermophilus parryii''). Littermates tended to live or die together more often than by chance. Individual survival was negatively related to litter size and positively related to body size at birth. Litter size is negatively correlated with body size at birth.<ref name=r57>{{cite journal|author=O'Donoghue, Mark|year=1994|jstor=1939619|title= Early survival of juvenile snowshoe hares|journal= Ecology|volume= 75|issue=6|pages= 1582–1592|doi=10.2307/1939619|bibcode=1994Ecol...75.1582O }}</ref>
== Population cycles ==
{{Further|Lotka–Volterra equations}}
[[File:Milliers fourrures vendues en environ 90 ans odum 1953 en.jpg|left|upright=2|thumb|Numbers of [[Lepus americanus|snowshoe hare]] (yellow, background) and [[Canada lynx]] (black line, foreground) furs sold to the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]. Canada lynx eat snowshoe hares.]]
Northern populations of snowshoe hares undergo cycles that range from seven to 17 years between population peaks. The average time between peaks is approximately 10 years. The period of abundance usually lasts for two to five years, followed by a population decline to lower numbers or local scarcity. Areas of great abundance tend to be scattered.<ref name=r53 /> Populations do not peak simultaneously in all areas, although a great deal of synchronicity occurs in northern latitudes.<ref name=r3 /> From 1931 to 1948, the cycle was synchronized within one or two years over most of Canada and Alaska, despite differences in predators and food supplies.<ref name=r68 /> In central Alberta, low snowshoe hare density occurred in 1965, with 42 to 74 snowshoe hares per 100 acres (40&nbsp;ha). The population peak occurred in November 1970 with 2,830 to 5,660 snowshoe hares per 100 acres (40&nbsp;ha). In the southern parts of its range, snowshoe hare populations do not fluctuate radically.<ref name=r46 />
Exclosure experiments in Alberta indicated browsing by snowshoe hares during population peaks has the greatest impact on palatable species, thus further reducing the amount of available foods. In this study, insufficient nutritious young browse was available to sustain the number of snowshoe hares present in the peak years (1971 and 1972) in winter.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Pease, James L. |author2=Vowles, Richard H. |author3=Keith, Lloyd B. |year= 1979|jstor=3800634 |title=Interaction of snowshoe hares and woody vegetation|journal= Journal of Wildlife Management|volume= 43|issue=1|pages= 43–6|doi=10.2307/3800634}}</ref>
The hare's fluctuating numbers are modelled by the [[Lotka–Volterra equations]].
== Preferred habitat ==
[[File:Schneehase 2004-11-14.jpg|thumb|Snowshoe hare in winter, well-camouflaged but lacking cover.]]
Major variables in habitat quality include average visual obstruction and browse biomass.{{technical statement|date=August 2020}} Snowshoe hares prefer young forests with abundant understories. The presence of cover is the primary determinant of habitat quality, and is more significant than food availability or [[species composition]].<ref name=r51>{{cite journal |author1=Litvaitis, John A. |author2=Sherburne, James A. |author3=Bissonette, John A. |year=1985 |jstor=3801359 |title=Influence of understory characteristics on snowshoe hare habitat use and density |journal=Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=866–873|doi=10.2307/3801359}}</ref> Species composition does, however, influence population density; dense softwood understories support greater snowshoe hare density than hardwoods because of cover quality. In Maine, female snowshoe hares were observed to be more common on sites with less cover but more nutritious forage; males tended to be found on sites with heavier cover.<ref name=r50>{{cite journal |author=Litvaitis, John A. |year=1990 |jstor=1381790 |title=Differential habitat use by sexes of snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=71 |issue=4 |pages=520–523 |doi=10.2307/1381790}}</ref>
[[File:Snowshoe hare transitioning.png|thumb|Hare with fur color change in progress in autumn, Alaska.]]
Winter browse availability depends on height of understory brush and winter snow depth; {{convert|6|to|8|ft|m|adj=mid|-tall}} saplings with narrow stem diameters are required for winter browse in heavy snow.<ref name=r81 />
In northern regions, snowshoe hares occupy conifer and mixed forests in all stages of succession, but early successional forests foster peak abundance. Deciduous forests are usually occupied only in early stages of succession. In New England, snowshoe hares preferred second-growth deciduous, coniferous, and mixed woods with dense brushy understories; they appear to prefer shrubby old-field areas, early- to mid-successional burns, shrub-swamps, bogs, and upper montane [[krumholz]] vegetation.<ref name="r21">DeGraaf, Richard M.; Yamasaki, Mariko; Leak, William B.; Lanier, John W. (1992). New England wildlife: management of forested habitats. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-144. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station</ref> In Maine, snowshoe hares were more active in clearcut areas than in partially cut or uncut areas. Sapling densities were highest on 12- to 15-year-old plots; these plots were used more than younger stands.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Monthey, Roger W. |year=1986 |title=Responses of snowshoe hares, ''Lepus americanus'', to timber harvesting in northern Maine |journal=Canadian Field-Naturalist |volume=100 |issue=4 |pages=568–570|doi=10.5962/p.355716 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In northern Utah, they occupied all the later stages of succession on quaking aspen and spruce-fir, but were not observed in meadows. In Alberta, snowshoe hares use upland shrub-sapling stages of regenerating aspens (either postfire or postharvest). In British Columbia overstocked juvenile lodgepole pine (''Pinus contorta'') stands formed optimal snowshoe hare habitat.<ref name=r72>{{cite journal |author1=Sullivan, T. P. |author2=Sullivan, D. S. |year=1988 |jstor=2403746 |title=Influence of stand thinning on snowshoe hare population dynamics and feeding damage in lodgepole pine forest |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |volume=25 |pages=791–805 |doi=10.2307/2403746 |issue=3|bibcode=1988JApEc..25..791S }}</ref>
In western Washington, most unburned, burned, or scarified clearcuts will normally be fully occupied by snowshoe hares within four to five years, as vegetation becomes dense.<ref name=r15 /> In older stands (more than 25 years), stem density begins to decline and cover for snowshoe hares decreases.<ref name=r46 /> However, in north-central Washington, they may not
colonize clearcuts until six or seven years, and it may take 20 to 25 years for their density to reach maximum. Winter snowshoe hare pellet counts were highest in 20-year-old lodgepole pine stands, lower in older lodgepole stands, and lowest in spruce-dominated stands.<ref name=r46>{{cite journal |title=Population and habitat characteristics of lynx and snowshoe hares in north central Washington |year=1990 |last1=Koehler |first1=Gary M. |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=68 |issue=5 |pages=845–851 |doi=10.1139/z90-122}}</ref> In western Oregon, snowshoe hares were abundant only in early successional stages, including stable brushfields.<ref name=r2>Allen, Hollis Howard. (1969). The inter-relationship of salmonberry and Douglas-fir in cutover areas. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University</ref> In west-central Oregon, an old-growth Douglas-fir forest was clearcut and monitored through 10 years of succession. A few snowshoe hares were noted in adjacent virgin forest plots; they represented widely scattered, sparse populations. One snowshoe hare was observed on the disturbed plot 2.5 years after it had been clearcut and burned; at this stage, ground cover was similar to that of the uncut forest. By 9 years after disturbance, snowshoe hare density had increased markedly.<ref name=r33>{{cite journal |author=Gashwiler, Jay S. |year=1970 |jstor=1933628 |title=Plant and mammal changes on a clearcut in west-central Oregon |journal=Ecology |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=1018–1026 |doi=10.2307/1933628|bibcode=1970Ecol...51.1018G }}</ref>
[[File:Flickr - Oregon Department of Fish & Wildlife - snowshoe hare swart odfw.jpg|thumb|Snowshoe hare in coniferous forest.]]
In western Washington, snowshoe hares routinely used steep slopes where cover was adequate; most studies, however, suggest they tend to prefer gentle slopes.<ref name=r15>Campbell, Dan L. (1982). "Influence of site preparation on animal use and animal damage to tree seedlings". In: Baumgartner, David M., compiler. ''Site preparation and fuels management on steep terrain'': Proceedings of a symposium; 1982 February 15–17; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 93–101</ref> Moonlight increases snowshoe hare vulnerability to predation, particularly in winter. They tend to avoid open areas during bright phases of the moon and during bright periods of a single night.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Gilbert, B. Scott |author2=Boutin, Stan |year= 1991 |jstor=1551438 |title=Effect of moonlight on winter activity of snowshoe hares |journal=Arctic and Alpine Research |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=61–65 |doi=10.2307/1551438}}</ref> Their activity usually shifts from coniferous understories in winter to hardwood understories in summer.<ref>{{cite journal |author=O'Donoghue, Mark |year= 1983 |title=Seasonal habitat selection by snowshoe hare in eastern Maine |journal=Transactions, Northeast Section of the Wildlife Society |volume=40 |pages=100–107}}</ref>
Vegetative structure plays an important role in the size of snowshoe hare home ranges. Snowshoe hares wander up to 5 miles (8&nbsp;km) when food is scarce.<ref name=r3>Banfield, A. W. F. (1974). ''The mammals of Canada''. Toronto: University of Toronto Press</ref> In Montana home ranges are smaller in brushy woods than in open woods. In Colorado and Utah, the average home range of both sexes was 20 acres (8.1 ha). On the [[Island of Montreal]] in Quebec, the average daily range for both sexes was 4 acres (1.6 ha) in old-field mixed woods. In Montana, the home range averaged 25 acres (10&nbsp;ha) for males and 19 acres (7.6 ha) for females.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Adams, Lowell |year=1959 |doi=10.2307/1942201 |title=An analysis of a population of snowshoe hares in northwestern Montana |journal=Ecological Monographs |volume=29|issue=2 |pages=148–153 |jstor= 1942201|bibcode=1959EcoM...29..141A }}</ref> In Oregon the average snowshoe hare home range was 14.6 acres (5.9 ha).<ref>{{cite journal |author=O'Farrell, Thomas P. |year=1965 |jstor=1377626 |title=Home range and ecology of snowshoe hares in interior Alaska |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=406–418 |doi=10.2307/1377626}}</ref>
== Cover requirements ==
[[File:Lepus_americanus_(31255566782).jpg|thumb|left|Snowshoe hare in partly coniferous cover]]
Snowshoe hares require dense, brushy, usually coniferous cover; thermal and escape cover are especially important for young hares.<ref name=r35 /> Low brush provides hiding, escape, and thermal cover. Heavy cover 10 feet (3&nbsp;m) above ground provides protection from avian predators, and heavy cover 3.3 feet (1&nbsp;m) tall provides cover from terrestrial predators. Overwinter survival increases with increased cover.<ref name=r51 /> A wide variety of habitat types are used if cover is available. Base visibility in good snowshoe hare habitat ranges from 2% at 16.5 feet (5&nbsp;m) distance to 0% at 66 feet (20&nbsp;m). Travel cover is slightly more open, ranging from 14.7% visibility at 16.5 feet (5&nbsp;m) to 2.6% at 66 feet (20&nbsp;m). Areas with horizontal vegetation density of 40 to 100% at 50 feet (15&nbsp;m) are adequate snowshoe hare habitat in Utah.<ref name=r81>{{cite journal|author1=Wolfe, Michael L. |author2=Debyle, Norbert V. |author3=Winchell, Clark S. |author4=McCabe, Thomas R. |year=1982|jstor=3808557 |title=Snowshoe hare cover relationships in northern Utah|journal= Journal of Wildlife Management|volume= 46|issue=3|pages= 662–670|doi=10.2307/3808557}}</ref>
== Food habits ==
Snowshoe hares eat a variety of plant materials. Forage type varies with season. Succulent green vegetation is consumed when available from spring to fall; after the first frost, buds, twigs, evergreen needles, and bark form the bulk of snowshoe hare diets until spring greenup.<ref name=r9>Bittner, Steven L.; Rongstad, Orrin J. (1982). "Snowshoe hare and allies". In: Chapman, J. A.; Feldhamer, C. A., eds. ''Wild mammals of North America: biology, management and economies''. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 146–163. {{ISBN|0801823536}}.</ref><ref name=r53 /> Snowshoe hares typically feed at night and follow well-worn forest paths to feed on various plants and trees.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100114013115/http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/snowshoe-hare/ Snowshoe Hares, Snowshoe Hare Pictures, Snowshoe Hare Facts – National Geographic]. Animals.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved on 2011-12-11.</ref>
=== Winter ===
[[File:Brooks Range (10) snowshoe hare.jpg|thumb|Snowshoe hare amid narrow woody stems bearing the marks of its teeth. In winter snow, appropriate stem diameters are essential browse.]]
[[File:Photo of the Week - Snowshoe Hare tracks in snow (VT) (6714464829).jpg|thumb|upright|Tracks of a hopping snowshoe hare in snow; rounder forefeet together, longer rear feet apart, forefeet together again.]]
Snowshoe hares prefer branches, twigs, and small stems up to 0.25&nbsp;inch (6.3&nbsp;mm) diameter; larger stems are sometimes used in winter.<ref name=r35 /> In Yukon, they normally eat fast-growing birches and willows, and avoid spruce. At high densities, however, the apical shoots of small spruce are eaten.<ref name=r68>{{cite journal|last1=Sinclair|first1=A. R. |last2=Gosline |first2=J. M. |last3=Holdsworth|first3=G. |last4=Krebs |first4=C. J. |last5=Boutin |first5=S.|last6=Smith|first6=J. N. |last7=Boonstra |first7=R. |last8=Dale |first8=M. |title=Can the solar cycle and climate synchronize the snowshoe hare cycle in Canada? Evidence from tree rings and ice cores |journal=The American Naturalist |volume=141 |issue=2 |pages=173–198 |year=1993 |pmid=19426078 |doi=10.1086/285468|hdl=1807/443 |s2cid=36401789 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The snowshoe hare winter diet is dominated by bog birch (''[[Betula glandulosa]]''), which is preferred but not always available. Greyleaf willow (''[[Salix glauca]]'') is eaten most often when bog birch is not available. Buffaloberry (''[[Shepherdia canadensis]]'') is the fourth most common diet item. White spruce (''[[Picea glauca]]'') is eaten, but not preferred. In Alaska, spruce, willows, and alders comprise 75% of snowshoe hare diets; spruce needles make up nearly 40% of the diet.<ref name=r79 /> In northwestern Oregon, winter foods include needles and tender bark of Sitka spruce, Douglas-fir, and western hemlock (''[[Tsuga heterophylla]]''); leaves and green twigs of salal; buds, twigs, and bark of willows; and green herbs.<ref name=r53 /> In north-central Washington, willows and birches are not plentiful; snowshoe hares browse the tips of lodgepole pine seedlings. In Utah, winter foods include Douglas-fir, willows, snowberry (''[[Symphoricarpos]]'' spp.), maples, and serviceberry (''[[Amelanchier]]'' spp.). In Minnesota, aspens, willows, hazelnut (''[[Corylus]]'' spp.), ferns (''[[Pteridophyta]]'' spp.), birches, alders, sumacs (''Rhus'' spp.), and strawberries (''Fragaria'' spp.) are winter foods. Winter foods in New York include eastern white pine, red pine (''[[Pinus resinosa]]''), white spruce, paper birch, and aspens.<ref name=r52 /> In Ontario, sugar maple (''[[Acer saccharum]]''), [[striped maple]] (''A. pensylvanicum''), red maple, other deciduous species, northern white-cedar (''T. occidentalis''), balsam fir, beaked hazelnut (''C. cornuta''), and buffaloberry were heavily barked.<ref name=r22 /> In New Brunswick, snowshoe hares consumed northern white-cedar, spruces, American beech (''Fagus grandifolia''), balsam fir, mountain maple (''A. spicatum''), and many other species of browse. In Newfoundland, paper birch is preferred.<ref name=r24>{{cite journal |last1=Dodds |first1=Donald G. |year=1960 |jstor=3797356 |title=Food competition and range relationships of moose and snowshoe hare in Newfoundland |journal=Journal of Wildlife Management |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=52–60 |doi=10.2307/3797356}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite news|url=https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/adorable-snowshoe-hares-found-to-routinely-feast-on-their-own-dead-study|title=Adorable snowshoe hares found to routinely feast on their own dead: study |newspaper=National Post |date=2019-01-10|language=en-CA|access-date=2019-01-12}}</ref> Further details on regional food preferences are summarized in ''Snowshoe hare and allies'':<ref name=r9 />
Recent studies show that Snowshoe hares also eat meat including flesh from their own species.<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/01/snowshoe-hares-carnivores-cannibals-photos-yukon/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190113062734/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/01/snowshoe-hares-carnivores-cannibals-photos-yukon/|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 January 2019|title=Hares are cannibals and eat meat, surprising photos reveal|date=11 January 2019|website=National Geographic.com}}</ref>
=== Spring, summer and autumn ===
[[File:Snowshoe hare eating grass.jpg|thumb|left|Snowshoe hare eating grass in summer]]
In Alaska, snowshoe hares consume new leaves of blueberries (''[[Vaccinium]]'' spp.), new shoots of field horsetails (''[[Equisetum arvense]]''), and fireweed (''[[Epilobium angustifolium]]'') in spring.
Grasses are not a major item due to low availability associated with sites that have adequate cover. In summer, leaves of willows, black spruce, birches, and bog Labrador tea (''[[Ledum groenlandicum]]'') are also consumed. Black spruce is the most heavily used and the most common species in the area. Pen trials suggest black spruce is not actually preferred. Roses (''[[Rose|Rosa]]'' spp.) were preferred, but a minor dietary item, as they were not common in the study area.<ref name=r79>{{cite journal|author=Wolff, Jerry O|year= 1978|jstor=3800702 |title=Food habits of snowshoe hare in interior Alaska|journal= Journal of Wildlife Management|volume= 42|issue=1|pages= 148–153|doi=10.2307/3800702}}</ref> In northwest Oregon, summer foods include grasses, clovers (''[[Trifolium]]'' spp.), other [[forbs]], and some woody plants, including Sitka spruce, Douglas-fir, and young leaves and twigs of salal.<ref name=r53 /> In Minnesota, aspens, willows, grasses, birches, alders, sumacs, and strawberries are consumed when green.<ref name=r52>Martin, Alexander C.; Zim, Herbert S.; Nelson, Arnold L. (1951). ''American wildlife and plants''. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company</ref> In Ontario, summer diets consist of clovers, grasses, and forbs.<ref name=r22>{{cite journal|author=de Vos, Antoon|year= 1964|title= Food utilization of snowshoe hares on Mantioulin Island, Ontario|journal= Journal of Forestry|volume= 62|pages= 238–244|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/saf/jof/1964/00000062/00000004/art00005}}</ref>
== Predators ==
[[File:Fox_(11983225834).jpg|thumb|upright|Fox with a snowshoe hare in its mouth]]
The snowshoe hare is a major prey item for a number of predators. Its foremost predator is the [[Canada lynx]] (''Lynx canadensis''), but other predators include [[bobcat]]s (''L. rufus''), [[Fisher (animal)|fishers]] (''Pekania pennanti''), [[American marten]]s (''Martes americana''), [[Pacific marten]]s, (''M. caurina''), [[long-tailed weasel]]s (''Neogale frenata''), [[American mink|minks]] (''N. vison''), foxes (''Vulpes'' and ''Urocyon'' spp.), [[coyote]] (''Canis latrans''), [[Dog|domestic dogs]] (''C. familiaris''), [[Cat|domestic cats]] (''Felis catus''), [[wolf|wolves]] (''Canis lupus''), [[North American cougar|cougar]]s (''Puma concolor''), [[great horned owl]]s (''Bubo virginianus''), [[barred owl]]s (''Strix varia''), [[spotted owl]]s (''S. occidentalis''), other owls, [[red-tailed hawk]]s (''Buteo jamaicensis''), [[northern goshawk]]s (''Accipiter gentilis''), other hawks (''Buteonidae''), [[golden eagle]]s (''Aquila chryseatos''), as well as [[corvid]]s.<ref name=r9 /><ref name=r53>Maser, Chris; Mate, Bruce R.; Franklin, Jerry F.; Dyrness, C. T. (1981). Natural history of Oregon Coast mammals. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-133. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station</ref><ref name=r35>Giusti, Gregory A.; Schmidt, Robert H.; Timm, Robert M. et al. (1992). "The lagomorphs: rabbits, hares, and pika". In: ''Silvicultural approaches to animal damage management in Pacific Northwest forests''. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-287. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. pp. 289–307.</ref> Other predators include [[American black bear|black bears]] (''Ursus americanus'').<ref name=r9 /> In Glacier National Park snowshoe hares are a prey item of [[Northern Rocky Mountain wolf|Rocky Mountain wolves]] (''Canis lupus irremotus'').<ref>Herman, Margaret, Willard, E. Earl. (1978). Rocky Mountain wolf and its habitat. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, National Forest System Cooperative Forestry, Forestry Research, Region</ref>
== Vulnerability to climate change ==
The habitat for some snowshoe hares has changed dramatically, leaving some habitats without snow for longer periods than previously.<ref>{{cite web|title=Evolutionary clock ticks for snowshoe hares facing climate change|url=https://phys.org/news/2016-01-evolutionary-clock-snowshoe-hares-climate.html|website=Phys.org|publisher=North Carolina State University|access-date=15 February 2018}}</ref> Some hares have adapted and stay brown all winter. Others, however, continue to turn white in winter. These hares are at an increased risk of being hunted and killed because they are no longer camouflaged.<ref>{{cite web|last1=DIEP|first1=FRANCIE|title=CLIMATE CHANGE IS DEADLY FOR SNOWSHOE HARES|url=https://psmag.com/environment/bye-bye-bunny|website=PSmag.com|date=14 June 2017 |access-date=15 February 2018}}</ref> Many people in the scientific community believe{{Weasel inline|date=October 2019}}{{Who|date=October 2019}} that snowshoe hare populations are at risk of crashing unless interbreeding speeds up the process of evolution to year-round brown. Other species who rely on the hare as part of their diet are also at risk.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hurry up and evolve|url=https://animalrightschannel.com/2018/02/15/hurry-up-and-evolve/|website=AnimalRightsChannel.com|access-date=15 February 2018|date=15 February 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Lynx-Snowshoe Hare Cycle|url=http://www.enr.gov.nt.ca/en/services/lynx/lynx-snowshoe-hare-cycle|publisher=Environment and Natural Resources|access-date=15 February 2018}}</ref>
== References ==
{{USDA|article=Lepus americanus|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/animals/mammal/leam/all.html}}
{{Reflist}}
== External links ==
{{Commons-inline|Lepus americanus|''Lepus americanus''}}
*[http://www.dnr.state.wi.us/org/caer/ce/eek//critter/mammal/hare.htm Environmental Education for Kids!: Critter Corner]
*[http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/fauna3/fauna10d2.htm National Park Service]
*[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Lepus_americanus.html Snowshoe hare] at ''Animal Diversity Web''
{{Lagomorpha|L.}}
{{North American Game}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q81063}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Lepus]]
[[Category:Arctic land animals]]
[[Category:Mammals of the United States]]
[[Category:Mammals of Canada]]
[[Category:Fauna of Alaska]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Sierra Nevada (United States)]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Western United States]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Great Lakes region (North America)]]
[[Category:Mammals described in 1777]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben]]