View source for Tamil inscriptions in the Malay world

A number of medieval inscriptions written in Tamil language and script that have been found in Southeast Asia and China, mainly in Sumatra and peninsular Thailand. These texts arose directly from trade links between south India and certain parts of Southeast Asia and China, which involved the residence in those regions of Tamil-speaking Indians. Several of these overseas Tamil inscriptions mention well-known medieval Indian merchant associations.<ref>Jan Wisseman Christie, "The Medieval Tamil-language Inscriptions in Southeast Asia and China", ''[[Journal of Southeast Asian Studies]]'', Vol. 29, No. 02, September 1998, pp 239-268</ref>
A good number of [[Tamil language|Tamil]] inscriptions, as well as [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] icons emanating from [[South India]], have been found in [[Southeast Asia]] (and even in Quanzhou in China).<ref>{{Cite web |last=Team |first=SimpliCity News |date=2019-07-03 |title=Rare Tamil stone inscription found in China; sheds light on cultural relations between ancient China and Tamilagam |url=https://simplicity.in/coimbatore/english/news/55252/Rare-Tamil-stone-inscription-found-in-China-sheds-light-on-cultural-relations-between-ancient-China-and-Tamilagam |access-date=2022-11-25 |website=simplicity.in |language=en}}</ref>
On the [[Malay Peninsula]], inscriptions have been found at [[Takuapa]], not far from the [[Vishnuite]] statues of Khao Phra Narai in [[Southern Thailand]]. It is a short inscription indicating that an artificial lake named ''Avani-naranam'' was dug by ''Nangur-Udaiyan'', which is the name of an individual who possessed a [[military]] [[fief]] at Nangur, being famous for his abilities as a [[warrior]], and that the lake was placed under the protection of the members of the Manikkiramam (which according to [[K. A. Nilakanta Sastri]], was a merchant guild) living in the military camp. Since Avani-narayana is a surname of the [[Pallava]] King [[Nandivarman III]] who reigned from 826 to 849, we can deduce the approximate date of this inscription.<ref name=Coedes>{{cite book|last= Coedès|first= George|author-link= George Coedès|editor= Walter F. Vella|others= trans.Susan Brown Cowing|title= The Indianized States of Southeast Asia|year= 1968|publisher= University of Hawaii Press|isbn= 978-0-8248-0368-1}}</ref>{{rp|107}}
In the capital of Tabralinga there is a sanctuary in which there is a bronze image of [[Gaṇeśa|Ganesa]] bearing a Tamil inscription ''Majapisedesa'' in modern characters.<ref name=Sastri1949>{{cite journal | author = Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta | author-link=K. A. Nilakanta Sastri|year = 1949| title = Takuapa and its Tamil Inscription Part I. | journal = Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society| volume =  22}}</ref>
== Neusu Inscription ==
[[File:Neusu Inscription.jpg|thumb|175px|Neusu inscription found in Banda Aceh, now kept at [[Aceh Museum]]]]
A slightly later Tamil language inscription has recently been found at Neusu Aceh, [[Banda Aceh]]. The date of the inscription is illegible, but it has been dated palaeographically to about the 12th century, The entire front of the stone is illegible, aside from the isolated word ''mandapam'', presumably relating to a temple foundation or endowment. A provisional translation of the legible portion of the back reads:
"[....] that [we] would not hold (kaikkollakadavadalla); for this decision. [If any violation comes or situation arises against it (?)...those] who put the [royal] emblem (ilachchinal, Sanskrit lancana) will come to take and go (seize?) [....] that [we] would not get or collect (kolludal) interest [in kind] (polisai) [...even] afterwards our people (makkal) would do in accordance with this inscription (ikkalvettuku kokka[okka]). Let there be prosperity."
This provisional reading suggests that the inscription dealt with trading regulations covering losses of goods, the waiving of collection of interest, and perhaps of royal fees. The legible portion of the text does not bear the name of any merchant association, but a reference to "our people" (''makkal'') may indicate that an association was involved: several inscriptions of this period in southern India connect merchant associations — particularly the ''Ainnurruvar'' — with the construction of ''mandapa'' or other additions to both Hindu and Buddhist foundations.<ref>[http://ismaili.net/Source/0104c.html The medieval Tamil-language inscriptions in Southeast Asia and China]</ref>
==Kedah Inscription==
In [[Bujang Valley|ancient Kedah]] there is an important and unmistakably [[Hindu]] settlement which has been known for about a century now from the discoveries reported by Col. Low and has recently been subjected to a fairly exhaustive investigation by Dr. [[Horace Geoffrey Quaritch Wales|Quaritch Wales]]. Dr. Wales investigated no fewer than thirty sites round about [[Kedah]]. The results attained show that this site was in continuous occupation by people who came under strong [[South Indian]] influences, [[Buddhist]] and [[Hindu]], for centuries.<ref name=Sastri>{{cite book | last = Sastri| first = K.A. Nilakanta|title = South Indian Influences in the Far East| url = https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4278| year = 1949| publisher = Hind Kitabs Ltd.| location = Bombay| pages = [https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.4278/page/n90 82]& 84}}</ref>
An inscribed stone bar, rectangular in shape, bears the ye-dharmma formula<ref group="nb">{{cite web
|url= http://www.virtualvinodh.com/brahmi-lipitva/208-ye-dhamma-brahmi
|title=  Ye Dhamma - The Verse of Causation
|author=  Vinodh Rajan
|date=  April 2, 2012
|publisher= Vinodh's Virtual Cyber Space
|access-date=  April 13, 2012
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120320104742/http://www.virtualvinodh.com/brahmi-lipitva/208-ye-dhamma-brahmi
|archive-date=  March 20, 2012
|url-status= live
|quote=  The Pali verse 'Ye Dhamma... ' is a popular verse in Buddhism that explains the heart of Buddhism Philosophy i.e Dependant Origination. The Sanskrit version of the verse is called "Pratityasamutpada Hridaya Dharani" [The Heart Dharani of Dependant Origination] with Om added to the beginning of the Verse, and Svaha added at the end, thus Dharani-fying the entire verse.  The Pali version never seems to have had any specific title.
}}</ref> in [[Vatteluttu|South Indian characters]] of the 4th century AD, thus proclaiming the Buddhist character of the shrine near the find-spot (site I) of which only the basement survives. It is inscribed on three faces in ''Pallava script'', or [[Vatteluttu]] rounded writing of the 6th century AD, possibly earlier.<ref name=Sastri/>
==Barus inscription==
{{main|Lobu Tua Inscription}}
An inscription in the Tamil language, the [[Lobu Tua Inscription]] dated 1088 AD, has been found on the western coast of Sumatra island at Lobu Tua, [[North Sumatra]] province, Indonesia. It was erected by a Tamil merchant [[guild]], the ''Ayyavole'' 500 (“the 500 of the thousand directions”) which enjoyed the patronage of the [[Chola]] rulers. The inscription mentions the guild as “having met at the ''velapuram'' in Varocu”.<ref>Leonard Y. Andaya, ''Leaves of the same tree: trade and ethnicity in the Straits of Melaka'', p. 151</ref> “Varocu” is Barus, an ancient port located not far from Lobu Tua, which had played a major role in the [[camphor]] and [[Benzoin (resin)|benzoin]] trade since the 9th century. These valuable products were in high demand in China, India and the Middle East and came from the forests in the northern Sumatra hinterland. From there, they were brought to Barus and exported. Tamil were among the foreign merchants who would come to Barus and buy the camphor and benzoin from local traders.
In 1017 and 1025, the Chola kings had sent fleets to raid ports controlled by Sriwijaya in the [[Malacca Straits]]. After these successful attacks, the Chola seem to have been in a position to intervene in the region for the rest of the 11th century. This allowed for an increased presence of Tamil merchant guilds in Sumatra.<ref>Pierre-Yves Manguin, “Srivijaya, An Introduction”</ref>
==Tanjore Inscription==
{{anchor | Thanjavur inscriptions | Tanjore Inscription}}
In the ancient city of [[Tanjore]] (Thanjavur — ancient name) in Tamil Nadu are inscriptions dating from 1030. which contain a list of the ports in the [[Malacca Strait]] raided by a fleet sent by King [[Rajendra Chola I]].
The following are the places that Rajendran claims to have raided:<ref name=Arokiaswamy2000>{{cite book | last = Arokiaswamy| first = Celine W.M.| title = Tamil Influences in Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines| year = 2000| location = Manila s.n.| pages = 37, 38, & 41}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1=Kulke |editor-first1=Hermann |editor-last2=Kesavapany |editor-first2=K. |editor-last3=Sakhuja |editor-first3=Vijay |title=Nagapattinam to suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the chola naval expeditions to Southeast Asia |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |year=2009 |location=Singapore}}</ref>{{rp|77-78, 170}}
*[[Sriwijaya]] ([[Palembang]])
*Pannai ([[Pannai]] kingdom)
*Malaiyur (the Malayu of the 7th century, i.e. Jambi) (referring to the ancient [[Melayu Kingdom]]. Known as [[Jambi]] today.)
*Mayirudingan (the Je-lo-ting of the [[China|Chinese]] on the [[Malay Peninsula]])
*Ilangasokam ([[Langkasuka]])
*Mapappalam (Papphaal, placed by the [[Sinhalese language|Sinhalese]] chronicle ''[[Mahavamsa]]'' on the coast of [[Bago, Myanmar|Pegu]] in [[Myanmar|Burma]])
*Mevilimbangam (unknown)
*Valaippanduru (unknown)
*Talaittakkolam (Takkola of [[Ptolemy]] and the Milindapandha, On the [[Kra Isthmus|isthmus of Kra]])
*Madamalingam ([[Tambralinga]], Chinese Tan-ma-ling, of which the center was at [[Nakhon Si Thammarat|Ligor]] in [[Southern Thailand]]), or the [[Kra Isthmus]]
*Ilamuridesam ([[Lambri|Lamuri]] of the [[Arab]]s, [[Lambri]] of [[Marco Polo]] at northern [[Sumatra]])
*Manakkavaram ([[Nicobar islands]])
*Kadaram ([[Kedah]])
==See also==
*[[Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world]]
* [[Tamil bell]]
==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}
==References==
<references/>
{{DEFAULTSORT:Tamil And Sanskrit Inscriptions In The Malay World}}
[[Category:Tamil diaspora in Malaysia]]
[[Category:Tamil diaspora in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Tamil inscriptions|Malaysia]]
[[Category:Indian diaspora in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Indian-Malaysian culture]]