View source for Tangier

{{Short description|City in and capital of Tanger-Tetouan-Al Hoceima, Morocco}}
{{Redirect|Tanger|other uses of Tanger|Tanger (disambiguation)|other uses of Tangier|Tangier (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name               = Tangier
| native_name        = {{lang|ar|طنجة}}
| native_name_lang   =
| settlement_type    = [[List of cities in Morocco|City]]
| image_skyline      = {{Photomontage
| photo1a = Tangier - 44699733295.jpg
| photo2a = Faro de Cabo Espartel (cropped).jpg
| photo2b = Kasbah Museum (39014311340) (cropped).jpg
| photo3a = The Violent Atlantic (cropped).jpg
| size = 275
| spacing = 2
| color = transparent
| border = 0
}}
| imagesize          =
| image_caption      = Clockwise from top: View towards the Medina, courtyard of [[Kasbah Palace, Tangier|Kasbah Palace]], waterfront from Achakar, [[Cape Spartel]] lighthouse
| image_seal         = Coat_of_arms_of_Tangier.png
| seal_size          =
| image_shield       =
| shield_size        = 75px
| image_blank_emblem =
| blank_emblem_type  =
| blank_emblem_size  =
| nickname           = The blue and white city, City of the [[Strait of Gibraltar|Boughaz]], Bride of the North
| image_map          =
| mapsize            =
| map_caption        =
| image_map1         =
| mapsize1           =
| map_caption1       =
| pushpin_map        = Morocco#Africa
| pushpin_label_position = left
| pushpin_relief     = yes
| pushpin_mapsize    =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Tangier within Morocco
| coordinates        = {{coord|35|46|36|N|05|48|14|W|region:MA-01_type:city(95,000)|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type   = [[List of sovereign states|Country]]
| subdivision_name   = [[File:Flag of Morocco.svg|25px]] [[Morocco]]
| subdivision_type1  = [[Regions of Morocco|Region]]
| subdivision_type2  =
| subdivision_type3  =
| subdivision_type4  =
| subdivision_name1  = [[Tanger-Tetouan-Al Hoceima]]
| subdivision_name2  =
| subdivision_name3  =
| subdivision_name4  =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_min_m    = 0
| elevation_min_ft   =
| population_as_of   = 2024
| population_footnotes = <ref name="census">{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Population légale du Royaume du Maroc répartie par régions, provinces et préfectures et communes selon les résultats du Recensement général de la population et de l'habitat 2024 |url=https://www.hcp.ma/Population-legale-du-Royaume-du-Maroc-repartie-par-regions-provinces-et-prefectures-et-communes-selon-les-resultats-du_a3974.html |access-date=2024-11-09 |website=Site institutionnel du Haut-Commissariat au Plan du Royaume du Maroc |language=fr}}</ref>
| population_note    = {{refn|The [[Haut Commissariat au Plan|High Commission for Planning]] defines the city of Tangier as comprising the four ''[[Administrative divisions of Morocco|arrondissements]]'' of [[Bni Makada]], Charf-Mghogha, Charf-Souani and Tanger-Médina.<ref name=citydefn>{{cite web |url=http://rgph2014.hcp.ma/file/165548/ |title=Note de présentation des premiers résultats du Recensement Général de la Population et de l'Habitat 2014 |language=fr |publisher=[[Haut Commissariat au Plan|High Commission for Planning]] |page=8 |date=20 March 2015 |access-date=9 October 2017}}</ref>|group=lower-alpha}}
| population_total   = 1275428
| population_density_km2 = 7026
| population_density_sq_mi =
| population_metro   =
| population_rank    = [[List of cities in Morocco|2nd in Morocco]]
| population_density_metro_km2 =
| population_density_metro_sq_mi =
| population_urban   =
| population_density_urban_km2 =
| population_demonym = Tanjawi, Tangierian
| timezone           = [[Central European Time|CET]]
| utc_offset         = +1
| elevation_max_m    = 230
| elevation_max_ft   =
| postal_code_type   = Postal codes
| postal_code        = {{ubl|90000|90010|90020|90030|90040|90050|90060|90070|90080|90090|90100}}
| area_code          = 0539
| website            = {{URL|http://tanger.ma/}}
| footnotes          = {{Notelist}}
| area_total_km2     = 124
| area_footnotes     = <ref name="The Tangier Commune">{{Cite web |title=The Tangier Commune |url=https://en.tanger.ma/ |access-date=2024-05-10 |language=en}}</ref>
| established_date   = c. 1000 BC
| established_title  = |<!-------- Politics ------>
| government_footnotes =
| government_type    = <!--Don't put anything here it's a city article-->
| leader_title       = Mayor
| leader_name        = Mounir Laymouri
| leader_title1      = <!--for places with, say, both mayor and a city manager -->
| leader_name1       =
}}
'''Tangier''' ({{IPAc-en|t|æ|n|ˈ|dʒ|ɪər}} {{respell|tan|JEER}}; {{langx|ar|طنجة|Ṭanjah}}, {{IPA|ar|tˤandʒa|}}, {{IPA|ar|tˤanʒa|}}) or '''Tangiers''' is a city in northwestern [[Morocco]], on the coasts of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The city is the [[capital city|capital]] of the [[Tanger-Tetouan-Al Hoceima]] region, as well as the [[Tangier-Assilah Prefecture]] of Morocco.
Many civilisations and cultures have influenced the history of Tangier, starting from before the 10th century{{nbsp}}BCE. Starting as a strategic [[Phoenicia]]n town and trading centre, Tangier has been a nexus for many cultures. In 1923, it became an [[Tangier International Zone|international zone]] managed by [[colonialism in Africa|colonial powers]] and became a destination for many European and American diplomats, spies, bohemians, writers and businessmen. That status came to an end with [[Moroccan independence]], in phases between 1956 and 1960.
By the early 21st century, Tangier was undergoing rapid development and modernisation. Projects include tourism projects along the bay, a modern business district called Tangier City Centre, an airport terminal, and a football stadium. Tangier's economy is set to benefit greatly from the [[Tanger-Med]] port.{{anchor|Etymology|Name}}
==Names==
The [[Carthaginian Empire|Carthaginian]] name of the city is variously recorded as {{sc|tng}} ({{langx|xpu|𐤕𐤍𐤂}}), {{sc|tngʾ}} ({{lang|xpu|𐤕𐤍𐤂𐤀}}), {{sc|tyngʾ}} ({{lang|xpu|𐤕𐤉𐤍𐤂𐤀}}),{{sfnp|Ghaki|2015|p=67}} and {{sc|ttgʾ}} ({{lang|xpu|𐤕𐤕𐤂𐤀}});{{sfnp|Head et al.|1911}} these appear in Greek and Roman sources as '''Tenga''', '''Tinga''', '''Titga''', &c.{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1913}} The old [[Berber language|Berber]] name was ''Tingi'' ({{lang|ber|ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵉ}}),<ref>{{Cite book |title=Libya antiqua: report and papers of the symposium organized by Unesco in Paris, 16 to 18 January 1984 |date=1986 |publisher=Unesco |isbn=978-92-3-102376-7 |editor-last=UNESCO |series=The General history of Africa |location=Paris |page=168}}</ref> which [[Ana Ruiz|Ruiz]] connects to Berber ''tingis'', meaning "marsh".<ref name=ruiz>{{harvp|Ruiz|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=y5VbQMltSLcC&pg=PA208 208]}}.</ref> The [[ancient Greek geography|Greeks]] [[folk etymology|later claimed]] that ''Tingís'' ({{langx|grc|Τιγγίς}}) had been named for [[Tinjis]], a daughter of the [[Titans|Titan]] [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]], who was supposed to support the [[Celestial spheres|vault of heaven]] nearby. [[Latin]] '''[[Tingis]]''' then developed into [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] {{lang|pt|Tânger}}, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] {{lang|es|Tánger}}, and [[French language|French]] {{lang|fr|Tanger}}, which entered English as ''Tangier'' and ''Tangiers''. The [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and modern Berber name of the town is ''Ṭanjah'' ({{lang|ar|طَنجة}}, {{lang|ber|ⵟⴰⵏⴵⴰ}}).{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1913}}
Moroccan historian [[Ahmed Toufiq]] considers that the name "Tingi" has the same etymology as ''[[Tinghir]]'', and is composed of "Tin", which is a feminine particle that could be translated as "owner" or "she who has", and "gi" which may have originally been "ig", meaning "high location". This corresponds to the popular Moroccan phrase ''Tanja l-ɛalya'' (Tangier the High), which may be a remnant echo of the original meaning, as well as a reference to the high location of Tangier. A similar construction can be found in the name of ''[[Tinmel]]'', the first capital of the [[Almohads]], which is composed of "Tin", and "Amlel" meaning "at foot of the mountain" or "at a low location".<ref name="taouf">{{Cite book|title=في تاريخ المغرب|year=2019|author=Ahmed Toufiq|language=ar|url=https://archive.org/details/some_pages/109889101_1666374716855022_7762441311513899932_n.jpg|trans-title=On the History of Morocco}}</ref>
Tangier was formally known as {{nowrap|'''Colonia Julia Tingi'''}} ("The [[Julia (gens)|Julian]] Colony of Tingis") following its elevation to [[Roman colonia|colony status]] during the [[Roman Empire]]. The nicknames "Bride of the North" and "Door of Africa" reference its position in far northwestern Africa near the [[Strait of Gibraltar]].
==History==
{{see also|Timeline of Tangier}}
===Ancient===
{{main|Tingis}}
[[File:Ruines de Tingis 1.jpg|thumb|right|Surviving parts of the wall of Roman [[Tingis]]]]
[[File:Prima Affrice Tabula.jpg|thumb|right|[[Claudius Ptolemy|Ptolemy]]'s 1st African map, showing Roman [[Mauretania Tingitana]]]]
Tangier was founded as a [[Phoenicia]]n [[Phoenician colonies|colony]], possibly as early as the 10th century{{nbsp}}BCE{{sfnp|Hartley|2007|p=345}}<ref name=brad>{{harvp|Davies|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H4QeOGV_zl4C&pg=PA119 119]}}.</ref> and almost certainly by the 8th century{{nbsp}}BCE.<ref name=sweethomealabama>{{harvp|Roller|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AFpzZfm7WdYC&pg=PT57 34]}}.</ref> The majority of [[Berbers|Berber]] tombs around Tangier had [[Punics|Punic]] jewelry by the 6th century{{nbsp}}BCE, speaking to abundant trade by that time.<ref>{{citation |last=Gómez Bellard |first=Carlos |contribution=Rural Landscapes of the Punic World |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tkwiAQAAIAAJ |date=January 2008 |title=Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology |number=11 |author2=Peter van Dommelen |display-authors=1 |ref={{harvid|Gómez Bellard et al.|2008}} |location=London |publisher=Equinox |at=Ch. 5, p. 17 }}.</ref> The [[Ancient Carthage|Carthaginians]] developed it as an important port of [[Carthaginian Empire|their empire]] by the 5th century{{nbsp}}BCE.{{sfnp|Hartley|2007|p=345}}<ref name=brad/> It was probably involved with the expeditions of [[Hanno the Navigator]] along the [[West Africa]]n coast.{{sfnp|Hartley|2007|p=345}}<ref name=sweethomealabama/> The city long preserved its [[Phoenicia]]n traditions, issuing bronze coins under the [[Mauretania]]n kings with [[Punic script]]. Under the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] other coins were issued, bearing [[Augustus]] and [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Agrippa]]'s heads and Latin script [[obverse]] but an image of the [[Canaanite religion|Canaanite god]] [[Baal]] [[obverse and reverse|reverse]].{{sfnp|Head et al.|1911}} Some editions of [[Procopius]] place his Punic [[Stele|stelae]] in Tingis rather than [[Tigisis in Numidia|Tigisis]];{{sfnp|Meakin|1899|p=[https://archive.org/details/moorishempireah02meakgoog/page/n40 10]}} in either case, however, their existence is highly dubious.{{sfnp|Amitay|2011}}
The Greeks knew this town as [[Tingis]] and, with [[interpretatio graeca|some modification]], record the [[Berber mythology|Berber legends]] of its founding. Supposedly [[Tinjis]], daughter of [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] and widow of [[Antaeus]], slept with [[Hercules]] and bore him the son [[Sufax|Syphax]]. After Tinjis' death, Syphax then founded the port and named it in her honour.<ref name=plu>{{citation |author=L. Mestrius Plutarchus |author-link=Plutarch |title=Parallel Lives |contribution=15: Sertorius |contribution-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Sertorius*.html |at=§9 |title-link=Parallel Lives }}.</ref> The gigantic skeleton and tomb of Antaeus were tourist attractions for ancient visitors.<ref name=plu/> The [[Caves of Hercules]], where he supposedly rested on [[Cape Spartel]] during [[Labors of Hercules|his labors]], remain one today.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}
Tingis came under the control of the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] ally [[Mauretania]] during the [[Punic Wars]]. [[Quintus Sertorius|Q. Sertorius]], in [[Sertorian War|his war]] against [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]]'s [[Constitutional reforms of Sulla|regime in Rome]], took and held Tingis for a number of years in the 70s{{nbsp}}BCE. It was subsequently returned to the Mauretanians but established as a [[republic]]an [[Free city (classical antiquity)|free city]] during the reign of [[Bocchus III of Mauretania|Bocchus{{nbsp}}III]] in 38{{nbsp}}BCE.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=650}}
Tingis received certain municipal privileges under [[Augustus]] and became a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[Roman colonia|colony]] under [[Claudius]], who made it the provincial capital of [[Mauretania Tingitana]].{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1878}}{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1913}} Under [[Diocletian]]'s [[Diocletian Reforms|291 reforms]], it became the seat of a [[comes|count]] (''{{lang|la|comes}}'') and Tingitana's [[praeses|governor]] (''{{lang|la|praeses}}'').{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=650}} At the same time, the province itself shrank to little more than the ports along the coast and, owing to the [[Great Persecution]], Tingis was also the scene of the [[Christian martyrdom|martyrdoms]] by [[decapitation|beheading]] of [[Marcellus of Tangier|Saints{{nbsp}}Marcellus]] and [[Cassian of Tangier|Cassian]] in 298.{{sfnp|Hartley|2007|p=345}} Tingis remained the largest settlement in its province in the 4th century and was greatly developed.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}
===Medieval===
[[File:Tangier4.JPG|right|thumb|Entrance gate to the medina]]
Probably invited by [[Bonifacius|Count Boniface]], who feared war with [[Galla Placidia|the empress dowager]],<ref name=pro/> tens of thousands of [[Vandals]] under [[Gaiseric]] crossed into [[North Africa]] in 429 CE and occupied Tingis<ref name=huckleberry>{{harvp|Finlayson|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z69sBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 26]}}.</ref> and Mauretania as far east as [[Calama (Numidia)|Calama]]. When Boniface learned that he and the empress had been manipulated against each other by [[Flavius Aetius|Aetius]], he attempted to compel the Vandals to return to Spain but was instead defeated at Calama in 431.<ref name=pro>{{citation |author=[[Procopius]] |title=History of the Wars |at=[[:s:History of the Wars/Book III|Bk. III]] |title-link=:s:History of the Wars }}.</ref> The Vandals lost control of Tingis and the rest of Mauretania in various Berber uprisings.
Tingis was reconquered by [[Belisarius]], the general of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor [[Justinian the Great|Justinian{{nbsp}}I]], in 533 as part of the [[Vandalic War]].<ref name=huckleberry/> The new provincial administration was moved, however, to the more defensible base at [[Septem (Ceuta)|Septem]] (present-day [[Ceuta]]).{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=650}} Byzantine control probably yielded to pressure from [[Visigoth Spain]] around 618.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Morocco |volume= 18 |last1= Meakin |first1= James Edward Budgett |last2= Meakin |first2= Kate Alberta | pages = 850&ndash;861, see page 855, final two lines |quote= In the fifth century A.D. the country became subject to the Vandals and, about 618, to the Goths.}}</ref>
[[Count Julian]] of [[Ceuta]] supposedly led the last defences of Tangier against the [[Islamic conquest of the Maghreb|Muslim invasion of North Africa]].{{sfnp|Akram|1980|p=5}} [[Chivalric romance|Medieval romance]] made his betrayal of [[Christendom]] a personal vendetta against the [[Visigoths|Visigoth]] king [[Roderic]] over the honour of his daughter,{{sfnp|Collins|2003}} but Tangier at least fell to a siege{{sfnp|Akram|1980|p=9}} by the forces of [[Musa bin Nusayr]] sometime between 707{{sfnp|Gerli|2003}} and 711.{{sfnp|Brett|2017}}<ref>{{citation |author=Ibn Abd al-Hakam |title=The History of the Conquest of Egypt, North Africa, and Spain... |editor-last=Torrey |editor-first=Charles Cutler |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |date=1922 }}.</ref> While he moved south through central Morocco, he had his deputy at Tangier [[Tariq ibn Zayid]], Musa's ''[[mawla]]'' {{sfnp|Collins|2003}}{{sfnp|Civantos|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GO0_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 115]}} launch the beginning of the [[Islamic conquest of Spain|Muslim invasion of Spain]].{{sfnp|Gerli|2003}} [[Uqba ibn Nafi]] was frequently but erroneously credited with Tangier's conquest by medieval historians, but only owing to Musa's later commission at the hands of [[Al-Walid I]].<ref>{{citation |first=Ahmed |last=Benabbès |contribution=Les Premiers Raids Arabes en Numidie Byzantine: Questions Toponymiques |title=Identités et Cultures dans l'Algérie Antique |location=Rouen |publisher=University of Rouen |date=2005 }}. {{in lang|fr}}</ref>
Under the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]], Tangier served as the capital of the Moroccan district (''Maghreb al-Aqsa''<ref name=bad/> or ''al-Udwa'') of the [[Ifriqiya|province of Africa]] (''Ifriqiya''). The conquest of the Maghreb and Spain had, however, been undertaken principally as raids for [[Slavery in Islam|slaves]] and plunder and the caliphate's leadership continued to treat all Berbers as pagans or slaves for [[jizya|tax purposes]], even after their wholesale conversion to Islam.<ref name=brett>{{harvp|Brett|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8C1WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA193 193]}}.</ref> In the area around Tangier, these hateful taxes were mostly paid in female slaves or in tender [[Lambskin (sheepskin)|lambskin]]s obtained by beating the ewes to induce [[premature birth]].<ref name=brett/> [[Yazid ibn Abi Muslim|Governor Yazid]] was murdered by Berber guards whom he had tattooed as slaves in {{c.|720}},<ref name=brett/> and in the 730s similar treatment from [[Ubayd Allah ibn al-Habhab|Governor Ubayd Allah]] and [[Omar ibn Abd Allah al-Muradi|al-Muradi]], his deputy at Tangier, provoked the [[Berber Revolt]]. Inspired by the egalitarian [[Kharijite]] heresy, [[Barghawata]] and others under [[Maysara al-Matghari]] seized Tangier in the summer of 740.{{sfnp|Ilahiane|2010|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aRYuDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 s.v. "Barghwata"]}}<ref name=brettt>{{harvp|Brett|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8C1WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 194]}}.</ref> In the [[Battle of the Nobles]] on the city's outskirts a few months later, Maysara's replacement [[Khalid ibn Hamid al-Zanati|Khalid ibn Hamid]] massacred the cream of Arab nobility in North Africa. An enraged [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik|Caliph Hisham]] ordered an attack from a second army "whose beginning is where they are and whose end is where I am," but this army was [[Battle of Bagdoura|defeated at Bagdoura]] the next year.{{sfnp|Blankinship|1994|pp=208–9}} The Barghawata were concentrated further south on the Atlantic coast, and area around Tangier fell into chaos until 785.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}}
The [[Zaidiyyah|Shia]] Arab refugee [[Idris I of Morocco|Idris]] arrived at Tangier{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} before moving further south, marrying into local tribes around [[Moulay Idriss]] and assembling an army that, among [[Idrisids|its other conquests]], took Tangier {{c.|790}}. During the division of the sultanate that occurred on the death of [[Idris II of Morocco|Idris{{nbsp}}II]], Tangier fell to his son [[Qasim ibn Idris|Qasim]] in 829.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} It was soon taken by Qasim's brother [[Umar ibn Idris|Umar]], who ruled it until his death in 835.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} Umar's son [[Ali ibn Umar|Ali]] became sultan (r.{{nbsp}}874–883), as did Qasim's son [[Yahya ibn al-Qasim|Yahya]] after him (r.{{nbsp}}880–904), but they governed from [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]].
The [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] caliph [[Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah|Abdullah al-Madhi]] began interfering in Morocco in the early 10th century, prompting [[Abd ar-Rahman III|the Umayyad emir of Cordova]] to proclaim himself caliph and to begin supporting proxies against his rivals. He helped the [[Maghrawa Berbers]] overrun [[Melilla]] in 927, [[Ceuta]] in 931, and Tangier in 949.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} Tangier's governor was subsequently named chief over Cordova's Moroccan possessions and allies.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} [[Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir|Ali ibn Hammud]], named Cordova's governor for Ceuta in 1013, took advantage of the realm's civil wars to conquer Tangier and [[Málaga]] before overrunning Cordova itself and proclaiming himself caliph in 1016. His Barghawata ally Rizḳ Allāh was then permitted to rule from Tangier with general autonomy.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}}
[[Yusuf ibn Tashfin]] captured Tangier for the [[Almoravids]] in 1077.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} It fell to [[Abd al-Mumin]]'s [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]] in the 1147 and then flourished under his dynasty, with its port highly active.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}}
Like Ceuta, Tangier did not initially acknowledge the [[Marinids]] after the fall of the Almohads. Instead, the local chief [[Abu 'l-Hadidjadj Yusuf ibn Muhammad ibn al-Amir al-Hamdani|Yusuf ibn Muhammad]] pledged himself to the [[Hafsids]] in Tunisia and then to the [[Abbasids]] in the east before being killed in {{sc|ah}}{{nbsp}}665 (late 1266 or early 1267).{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} [[Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq|Abu Yusuf Yaqub]] compelled Tangier's allegiance with a three months' siege in 1274.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}}
The next century was an obscure time of rebellions and difficulties for the city. During this time, the traveler [[Ibn Battuta]] was born in Tangier in 1304, leaving home at 20 for the [[hajj]].{{sfnp|Ilahiane|2010|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aRYuDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 s.v. "Ibn Battuta Muhammad ibn ʿAbd Allah"]}} [[Barbary pirates|Piracy]] from Tangier and [[Salé]] began to harass shipping in the [[Strait of Gibraltar|strait]] and [[North Atlantic]] in the late 14th{{nbsp}}century.<ref name=huckleberry/> A partial plan of the late medieval [[kasbah]] was found in a Portuguese document now held by the [[Military Archives of Sweden]] in Stockholm.{{sfnp|Elbl|2012}}
=== Early modern ===
When the Portuguese started their [[Portuguese Empire|colonial expansion]] by [[Conquest of Ceuta|taking Ceuta]] in retribution for its piracy<ref name=huckleberry/> in 1415,<ref>B. W. Diffie, ''Prelude to Empire, Portugal Overseas before Henry the Navigator'', University of Nebraska Press, Ann Arbor, 1960, pp. 83–90.</ref> Tangier was always a major goal. They [[Battle of Tangier (1437)|failed to capture it in 1437]], 1458, and 1464,{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} but occupied it unopposed on 28 August 1471 after its garrison fled upon learning of the [[conquest of Asilah]].<ref name=eb>{{harvp|Elbl|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AeTBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10]}}.</ref> As in Ceuta, they converted its chief mosque into the town's cathedral church; it was further embellished by several restorations during the town's occupation.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=650}} In addition to the cathedral, the Portuguese raised European-style houses and [[Franciscans|Franciscan]] and [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] chapels and monasteries.<ref name=huckleberry/> The [[Wattasids]] assaulted Tangier in 1508, 1511, and 1515 but without success. In the 17th century, it passed with the rest of Portugal's domains into [[Spanish Empire|Spanish control]] as part of the [[Iberian Union|personal union of the crowns]]{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1913}} but maintained its Portuguese garrison and administration.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}}
[[File:1680s - J. Oliver - Tangier.jpg|thumb|Tangier in the 17th century]]
The English took advantage of the respite to improve greatly the Portuguese defences.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} They also planned to improve the harbour by building a [[Mole (architecture)|mole]], which would have allowed it to play the same role that Gibraltar later played in British naval strategy. Incompetence, waste and outright fraud and embezzlement caused costs to swell; among those enriched was [[Samuel Pepys]].<ref>{{citation |last=Lincoln |first=Margarette |contribution=Samuel Pepys and Tangier, 1662–1684 |title=Huntington Library Quarterly |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=417–434 |date=2014 |doi=10.1525/hlq.2014.77.4.417 }}.</ref> The mole cost [[GBP|£]]340,000 and reached {{convert|1436|ft|m|abbr=on}} long before its destruction.{{sfnp|Routh|1912}}{{sfnp|Elbl|2009}}{{sfnp|Elbl|2013|loc=Ch. 8}} Although funding was found for the fortifications, the garrison's pay was delayed until in December 1677 it was 2{{frac|1|4}} years in arrears; [[Palmes Fairborne|Governor Fairborne]] dealt with the ensuing [[mutiny]] by seizing one of the soldier's [[musket]]s and killing him with it on the spot.
A [[Great Siege of Tangier|determined siege]] by [[Ismail Ibn Sharif|Sultan Moulay Ismail]] of Morocco between 1678 and 1680 was unsuccessful,<ref>{{cite book |last=Bejjit |first=Karim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W7K1CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 |title=English Colonial Texts on Tangier, 1661–1684: Imperialism and the Politics of Resistance |publisher=Ashgate |year=2015 |pages=33–36 |isbn=978-1-317-14314-7 |language=en}}</ref> but longstanding exasperation with the colony's finances<ref name="finn" /> and the difficulties caused by the siege<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Abun-Nasr |first=Jamil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC |title=A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1987 |isbn=0521337674 |location=Cambridge |pages=232–233 |language=en}}</ref> pushed Parliament to write off the effort in 1680.<ref name="finn">{{harvp|Finlayson|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z69sBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 28]}}.</ref> At the time, Tangier's population consisted of only about 700 apart from the thousand-man garrison; [[Percy Kirke|Governor Kirke]] estimated 400 of them had suffered [[gonorrhea]] from the same "mighty pretty" sex worker.<ref name="finn" /> Forces under [[George Legge, 1st Baron Dartmouth|Lord Dartmouth]] (including [[Samuel Pepys]]) methodically destroyed the town and its port facilities for five months prior to Morocco's occupation of the city on 7 February 1684.{{sfnp|Elbl|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AeTBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 13–14]}}
Ali ibn Abdallah and his son Ahmed ibn Ali served in turn as the town's governors until 1743, repopulating it with populace from the surrounding countryside.{{sfnp|Finlayson|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z69sBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}} They were powerful enough to oppose [[Abdallah of Morocco|Sultan Abdallah]] through his various reigns, giving support and asylum to his various rivals within and without the royal family.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=652}}
The city was attacked by Spain in 1790.{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1878}}
=== Internationalisation ===
{{See also|Tangier International Zone|Spanish occupation of Tangier (1940–1945)}}
[[File:Morocco Tangier Port.jpg|thumb|Renschhausen building, erected around 1913 by German businessman Adolf Renschhausen, exemplar of German influence in pre-World-War-I Tangier]]
[[File:Morocco Tangier Bolsa.jpg|thumb|Former stock exchange building in the {{lang|fr|Ville Nouvelle}}]]
From the 18th century, Tangier served as Morocco's diplomatic headquarters.{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1911}} The United States dedicated its first consulate in Tangier during the [[Presidency of George Washington|George Washington's tenure as president]].<ref>[http://www.wweek.com/editorial/3314/8560/ ''Power, Faith and Fantasy: In the beginning, for America, was the Middle East''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403104942/http://www.wweek.com/editorial/3314/8560/ |date=2007-04-03 }}, Matt Buckingham, week, February 14, 2007.</ref> In 1821, [[Tangier American Legation Museum|the Legation Building]] in Tangier became the first piece of property acquired abroad by the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. government]]—a gift to the U.S. from Sultan [[Slimane of Morocco|Moulay Suliman]].
In 1828, [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Great Britain]] blockaded the port in retaliation for piracy.<ref name=EB>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Morocco |volume= 18 |last1= Meakin |first1= James Edward Budgett |last2= Meakin |first2= Kate Alberta | pages = 850&ndash;861, see page 857, final para |quote=By Sulaiman's direction the imperial umbrella passed to his nephew, Abd-er-Rahman II., on whom he could rely to maintain his policy. Although disposed to promote foreign trade, he made a futile attempt in 1828 to revive piracy, which the Austrians frustrated by reprisals next year. }}</ref> As part of [[French conquest of Algeria|its ongoing conquest]] of neighbouring [[Ottoman Algeria|Algeria]], [[July Monarchy|France]] [[Franco-Moroccan War|declared war]] over Moroccan tolerance of [[Emir Abdelkader|Abd el-Kader]]; Tangier was bombarded by a French fleet under the [[François d'Orléans, Prince of Joinville|Prince of Joinville]] on 6 August 1844.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=652}} What little of its fortifications were damaged{{sfnp|Elbl|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AeTBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 15]}} were later repaired by English engineers,<ref name=bad>{{harvp|Baedeker|1901|p=[https://archive.org/stream/01710943.5406.emory.edu/01710943_5406#page/n599/mode/2up 426]}}.</ref> but French [[Battle of Isly|victory at Isly]] near the disputed border [[Treaty of Tangier (1844)|ended the conflict on French terms]].
Italian revolutionary hero [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] lived in exile at Tangier in late 1849 and the first half of 1850, following the fall of the revolutionary [[Roman Republic (19th century)|Roman Republic]].
Tangier's geographic location made it a centre of [[Europe]]an diplomatic and commercial rivalry in Morocco in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite book |last= Bensoussan |first=David |title= Il Était Une Fois Le Maroc: Témoignages Du Passé Judéo-Marocain|year=2010 |publisher=Éditions Du Lys |location=Québec |isbn=978-2-922505-21-4 |language=fr}}</ref> By the 1870s, it was the site of every foreign embassy and consul in Morocco but only held about 400 foreign residents out of a total population of around 20,000.{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1878}} The city increasingly came under French influence, and it was here in 1905 that [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Kaiser Wilhelm{{nbsp}}II]] triggered [[Tangier Crisis|an international crisis]] that almost led to war between his country and France by pronouncing himself in favour of Morocco's continued independence, with an eye to its future acquisition by the [[German Empire]]. The [[Algeciras Conference]] which ended the standoff left Tangier's [[police of Morocco|police]] training and [[Customs (tax)|customs]] collections in international hands{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1911}} but Britain's strong support of its "[[Entente Cordiale]]" with France ended German hopes concerning Morocco.
Improved harbour facilities were completed in 1907, with an inner and outer [[Mole (architecture)|mole]].{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1911}} In 1905 the first Moroccan newspaper, ''Lisan al-Maghrib'' ("The Voice of Morocco"), was established in Tangiers on the order of Sultan [[Abdelaziz of Morocco|Abdelaziz]], partly with the aim of counteracting the views expressed by ''al-Sa'adah'', an Arabic newspaper established in 1904 or 1905 by the French embassy in the city.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> The newspaper was founded and managed on behalf of the government by two Lebanese journalists, Faraj and Artur Numur.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Abdulrazak|first=Fawzi A.|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/136986020/The-Kingdom-of-the-Book-the-History-of-Printing-as-an-Agency-of-Change-in-Morocco-1865-1912-F-Abdulrazak|title=The kingdom of the book: The history of printing as an agency of change in Morocco between 1865 and 1912|publisher=Boston University (PhD thesis)|year=1990|pages=141–142}}</ref> It later became more notorious for publishing reformist ideas and views critical of the sultan.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Miller|first=Susan Gilson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=peGyku_eREkC&q=lisan+al-maghrib|title=A History of Modern Morocco|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-521-81070-8|pages=85–86|language=en}}</ref> In the years leading up to the [[First World War]], Tangier had a population of about 40,000, about half Muslim, a quarter [[Judaism in Morocco|Jewish]], and a quarter European Christians. Of the Europeans, about three-quarters were Spanish artisans and labourers.{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1911}}{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1913}}
In 1912, the [[Treaty of Fes]] established the [[French protectorate in Morocco|French protectorate]] over most of Morocco and [[Spanish Morocco|Spanish rule]] in the country's far south and north, but left Tangier's status for further determination. [[Hubert Lyautey]] persuaded the last Sultan of independent Morocco, [[Abdelhafid of Morocco|Abdelhafid]], to abdicate in exchange for the receipt of a massive pension.<ref>{{citation |title=Morocco: From Empire to Independence |author=Richard Pennell |publisher=Oneworld |location=Oxford |date=2003 |page=140}}</ref> Abdelhafid planned to live in Tangier where he used part of his pension to build an opulent mansion west of the old city, the [[Abdelhafid Palace]], completed in 1914.<ref>{{cite web |website=Guía de Marruecos |url=https://www.guiademarruecos.com/el-norte/tanger/ruta-turismo-historico-tanger/ |title=Ruta por el Tánger histórico |date=2020-03-10 }}</ref> The complex was later purchased by Italian interests and is now also known as the "Palace of Italian Institutions" ({{langx|fr|palais des institutions italiennes}}).<ref>{{cite web |website=Hotel Tanger |url=https://www.hotel-tanger.com/palais-institutions-italiennes-0603 |title=Palais Moulay Hafid|date=2 April 2013 }}</ref> The [[standard-gauge]] Franco-Spanish [[Tangier–Fez Railway]] ({{langx|fr|Compagnie Franco-Espagnole du Tanger–Fès}}) was constructed from 1919 to 1927.
The [[Tangier International Zone]] was created under the joint administration of France, Spain and the [[United Kingdom]] by an international convention signed in Paris on 18 December 1923.<ref>"New Status of Tangiers", The Times of London, November 27, 1923.</ref> Ratifications were exchanged in Paris on 14 May 1924, and the convention was registered in ''League of Nations Treaty Series'' on 13 September 1924.<ref>''League of Nations Treaty Series'', vol. 28, pp. 542–631.</ref> It was amended by a protocol of July 1928 to elevate the status of Italy, an idea put forth by [[Austen Chamberlain|Sir Austen Chamberlain]] of Great Britain.<ref>{{Citation |title=From Our Own Correspondent: Gallipoli and the Western Front |date=2006 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9780755621996.ch-008 |work=War, Journalism and the Shaping of the Twentieth Century |access-date=2023-04-18 |publisher=I.B.Tauris|doi=10.5040/9780755621996.ch-008 |isbn=978-1-84511-081-9 }}</ref> The European powers' creation of the statute of Tangier promoted the formation of a cosmopolitan society where Muslims, Christians, and Jews lived together with reciprocal respect and tolerance. A town where men and women, with many different political and ideological tendencies, found refuge, including Spaniards from the right or from the left, Jews fleeing Nazi Germany and Moroccan dissidents. With very liberal economic and fiscal laws, Tangier became - in an international environment full of restrictions, prohibitions and monopolies - a tax haven with absolute freedom of trade.<ref><Ceballos, Leopoldo, Historia de Tánger, Almuzara, 2009, pp. 10-11 and 23-24></ref> The International Zone of Tangier had a {{convert|373|km2|abbr=on}} area and, by the mid-1930s, a population of about 50,000 inhabitants: 30,000 Muslims; 12,000 Jews; and 8,000-odd Europeans, with a decreasing proportion of working-class Spaniards.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=650}} At its peak in the 1940s, there were 22,000 Jews in Tangier. <ref>{{cite web |title= Unveiling Tangier's Hidden Gems: Discovering the Jewish Heritage Sites |url= https://moroccotravelblog.com/2023/12/01/unveiling-tangiers-hidden-gems/ |website= moroccotravelblog |access-date=27 November 2024}}</ref>
Spanish troops occupied Tangier on 14 June 1940, the same day [[Battle of France|Paris fell to the Germans]]. Despite calls by Spanish nationalists to annex "''{{lang|es|Tánger español}}''", the [[Francoist Spain|Franco regime]] publicly considered the occupation a temporary [[Spain in World War II|wartime measure]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Payne |first=S.G. |title=The Franco Regime, 1936–1975 |location=Madison |publisher=University of Wisconsin |date=1987 |page=268}}</ref> A diplomatic dispute between Britain and Spain over the latter's abolition of the city's international institutions in November 1940 led to a further guarantee of British rights and a Spanish promise not to fortify the area.{{sfn |Payne|1987| p=274, note 28}} The territory was restored to its pre-war status on October 11, 1945.<ref>{{Cite journal | first =Assistant Secretary | last =Benton| title =Reestablishment of the International Regime in Tangier |journal =Department of State Bulletin | series =330 | pages=613–618| volume =XIII | date =October 21, 1945 | url = https://archive.org/stream/departmentofstatx1345unit#page/613/mode/1up }}</ref>
=== Moroccan independence ===
The Tangier International Zone played an important role in the campaign for Moroccan independence.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |last=Stenner |first=David |title=Globalizing Morocco: Transnational Activism and the Postcolonial State |date=2019-05-14 |work=Globalizing Morocco |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781503609006/html |access-date=2024-03-20 |publisher=Stanford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1515/9781503609006 |isbn=978-1-5036-0900-6}}, page 20.</ref> Because of its legal status as an international zone, activists were able to meet in Tangier, relatively protected from the French and Spanish authorities.<ref name=":2" /> In 1951, the National Front was created in Tangier, a pact between Morocco's four nationalist parties to coordinate their campaign to achieve Moroccan independence.<ref>{{Citation |last=Stenner |first=David |title=Globalizing Morocco: Transnational Activism and the Postcolonial State |date=2019-05-14 |work=Globalizing Morocco |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781503609006/html |access-date=2024-03-20 |publisher=Stanford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1515/9781503609006 |isbn=978-1-5036-0900-6}}, page 17</ref>
In July 1952 the protecting powers met at [[Rabat]] to discuss the International Zone's future, agreeing to abolish it. Tangier joined with the rest of Morocco following the restoration of full sovereignty in 1956.<ref>{{cite web|title = Final Declaration of the International Conference in Tangier and annexed Protocol. Signed at Tangier, on 29 October 1956 [1957] UNTSer 130; 263 UNTS 165 |url = http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/treaties/UNTSer/1957/130.html|date = 1956}}</ref> At the time of the handover, Tangier had a population of around 40,000 Muslims; 31,000 Christians; and 15,000 Jews.<ref>{{citation |contribution-url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0019_0_19572.html |contribution=Tangier(s) |title=Jewish Virtual Library |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118222408/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0019_0_19572.html |archive-date=18 January 2012 |title-link=Jewish Virtual Library }}.</ref>
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Planta de Tanger, Leonardo de Ferrari, 1655.jpg|Leonardo de Ferrari's plan of the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] fortifications at Tangier, c.{{nbsp}}1655.
File:The land of the Moors; a comprehensive description (1901) (14780828702).jpg|[[Wenceslaus Hollar|Hollar]]'s landscape of Tanger at the beginning of [[English Tangier|its English occupation]]
File:Baedeker's Spain and Portugal- Tangier (1901).jpg|Tangier c.{{nbsp}}1901
File:Editorial cartoon about the Perdicaris Incident.jpg|A 1904 [[editorial cartoon]] illustrating the [[gunboat diplomacy]] involved in resolving the [[Perdicaris Incident]].
File:ETH-BIB-Sicht_auf_Tanger-Nordafrikaflug_1932-LBS_MH02-13-0452.tif|Aerial view of Tangier in 1932
File:Tangier Zone txu-oclc-6949452-ni30-1.jpg|Tangier and [[Tangier International Zone|its mid-20th-century international zone]]
</gallery>
==Geography==
[[File:Tangiermorocconasa.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Tangier from space (2005)]]
Central Tangier lies about {{convert|14|mi|order=flip|abbr=on}} east of [[Cape Spartel]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-23 |title=Experience the view of the Strait of Gibraltar from Cape Spartel - Tangier Guide |url=https://tangier.guide/experience-the-view-of-the-strait-of-gibraltar-from-cape-spartel/ |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=tangier.guide |language=en-US}}</ref> the southern half of the [[Strait of Gibraltar]].{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1911}} It nestles between two hills at the northwest end of the [[Bay of Tangier]], which historically formed the best natural harbour anywhere on the Moroccan coast before the increasing size of ships required anchorage to be made further and further from shore.{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1911}} The shape of the gradually-rising underlying terrain creates the effect of the city as an [[amphitheatre]], with the commercial district in the middle.{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1911}} The western hill ({{langx|fr|La Montagne}}) is the site of the city's citadel or [[kasbah]]. The eastern hill forms [[Cape Malabata]],{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=650}} sometimes proposed as the point for a [[Strait of Gibraltar crossing|strait crossing]].<ref>{{citation |last=Tremlett |first=Giles |contribution-url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/dec/15/spain.gilestremlett |contribution=Spain and Morocco Plan Tunnel Link |date=15 December 2003 |title=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com }}.</ref> (Years of studies have, however, made no real progress thus far.)<ref>{{citation |last=Leadbeater |first=Chris |contribution-url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/spain/articles/rail-tunnel-spain-morocco-strait-gibraltar-tarifa-tangier-casablanca/ |contribution=Will a Tunnel from Spain to Africa Ever Be Built—And Who Would Use It? |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001219165200/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=December 19, 2000 |title=The Telegraph |date=31 May 2018 }}.</ref>
The Marshan is a plateau about {{convert|1300|yd|m ft|0|order=out}} long spreading west of downtown along the sea.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=650}}
===Climate===
Tangier has a [[mediterranean climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''Csa'') with heavier rainfall than most parts of North Africa and nearby areas on the [[Iberian Peninsula]] owing to its exposed location.<ref name=valor/> The [[prevailing winds]] blow from the sea and have kept the site generally healthy even in earlier times with much poorer sanitation.<ref name=bad/> The summers are relatively hot and sunny and the winters are wet and mild. Frost is rare, although a new low of {{convert|−4.2|°C}} was recorded in January 2005.<ref name=valor>{{cite web|url=http://ogimet.com/cgi-bin/gsynres?lang=en&ind=60101&ano=2005&mes=1&day=28&hora=18&min=0&ndays=30|title=Synop report summary|first=G. Ballester|last=Valor}}</ref>
{{Weather box
|width = 1000px
|location = Tangier ([[Tangier Airport]]) 1961–1990, extremes 1917–1963
|metric first = yes
|single line = yes
|Jan record high C = 22.0
|Feb record high C = 24.1
|Mar record high C = 24.0
|Apr record high C = 34.8
|May record high C = 31.9
|Jun record high C = 33.5
|Jul record high C = 36.7
|Aug record high C = 38.2
|Sep record high C = 35.8
|Oct record high C = 30.4
|Nov record high C = 27.0
|Dec record high C = 24.0
|year record high C =
|Jan high C = 16.2
|Feb high C = 16.8
|Mar high C = 17.9
|Apr high C = 19.2
|May high C = 21.9
|Jun high C = 24.9
|Jul high C = 28.3
|Aug high C = 28.6
|Sep high C = 27.3
|Oct high C = 23.7
|Nov high C = 19.6
|Dec high C = 17.0
|year high C = 21.8
|Jan mean C = 12.5
|Feb mean C = 13.1
|Mar mean C = 14.0
|Apr mean C = 15.2
|May mean C = 17.7
|Jun mean C = 20.6
|Jul mean C = 23.5
|Aug mean C = 23.9
|Sep mean C = 22.8
|Oct mean C = 19.7
|Nov mean C = 15.9
|Dec mean C = 13.3
|year mean C = 17.7
|Jan low C = 8.8
|Feb low C = 9.4
|Mar low C = 10.1
|Apr low C = 11.2
|May low C = 13.4
|Jun low C = 16.2
|Jul low C = 18.7
|Aug low C = 19.1
|Sep low C = 18.3
|Oct low C = 15.6
|Nov low C = 12.2
|Dec low C = 9.7
|year low C = 13.6
|Jan record low C = -4.2
|Feb record low C = 0.8
|Mar record low C = 4.2
|Apr record low C = 5.8
|May record low C = 7.4
|Jun record low C = 10.2
|Jul record low C = 10.5
|Aug record low C = 14.0
|Sep record low C = 10.0
|Oct record low C = 9.0
|Nov record low C = 4.8
|Dec record low C = -0.1
|year record low C =
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 103.5
|Feb precipitation mm = 98.7
|Mar precipitation mm = 71.8
|Apr precipitation mm = 62.2
|May precipitation mm = 37.3
|Jun precipitation mm = 13.9
|Jul precipitation mm = 2.1
|Aug precipitation mm = 2.5
|Sep precipitation mm = 14.9
|Oct precipitation mm = 65.1
|Nov precipitation mm = 134.6
|Dec precipitation mm = 129.3
|year precipitation mm = 735.9
|Jan precipitation days = 11.2
|Feb precipitation days = 11.4
|Mar precipitation days = 10.1
|Apr precipitation days = 9.3
|May precipitation days = 6.1
|Jun precipitation days = 3.7
|Jul precipitation days = 0.8
|Aug precipitation days = 0.8
|Sep precipitation days = 3.1
|Oct precipitation days = 8.0
|Nov precipitation days = 11.1
|Dec precipitation days = 12.0
|year precipitation days = 87.6
|Jan humidity = 80
|Feb humidity = 81
|Mar humidity = 78
|Apr humidity = 78
|May humidity = 76
|Jun humidity = 74
|Jul humidity = 70
|Aug humidity = 72
|Sep humidity = 73
|Oct humidity = 76
|Nov humidity = 79
|Dec humidity = 81
|year humidity = 76
|Jan sun = 169.2
|Feb sun = 166.9
|Mar sun = 231.7
|Apr sun = 251.7
|May sun = 298.9
|Jun sun = 306.8
|Jul sun = 344.0
|Aug sun = 330.7
|Sep sun = 275.6
|Oct sun = 238.2
|Nov sun = 180.6
|Dec sun = 166.9
|year sun = 2960.7
|source 1 = NOAA<ref name= NOAA>{{cite web
| url = ftp://ftp.atdd.noaa.gov/pub/GCOS/WMO-Normals/TABLES/REG__I/FM/60101.TXT
| title = Tangier Climate Normals 1961–1990
| publisher = [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]
| access-date = October 14, 2016}}</ref>
|source 2 = [[Deutscher Wetterdienst]] (humidity, 1973–1993)<ref name = DWD>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.dwd.de/DWD/klima/beratung/ak/ak_601010_kt.pdf
| title = Klimatafel von Tanger / Marokko
| work = Baseline climate means (1961–1990) from stations all over the world
| publisher = Deutscher Wetterdienst
| language = de
| access-date = October 14, 2016}}</ref>
}}
==Subdivisions==
{{Update|part=section|date=November 2024|reason=Citation is for the 2004 census. Both citation and numbers may need updating for the 2024 census.}}
The current prefecture is divided administratively into the following:<ref name="Pop">{{cite web|url=http://www.lavieeco.com/documents_officiels/Recensement%20population.pdf|title=Recensement général de la population et de l'habitat de 2004|publisher=Haut-commissariat au Plan, Lavieeco.com|access-date=27 April 2012|archive-date=8 April 2019|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20190408194812/http://www.lavieeco.com/documents_officiels/Recensement%20population.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Name !! Geographic code !! Type !! Households !! Population (2004)!! Foreign population !! Moroccan population !! Notes
|-
| [[Assilah]] || 511.01.01. || Municipality || 6,245 || 28,217 || 66 || 28,151 ||
|-
| [[Bni Makada]] || 511.01.03. || Arrondissement || 47,384 || 238,382 || 74 || 238,308 ||
|-
| [[Charf-Mghogha]]|| 511.01.05. || Arrondissement || 30,036 || 141,987 || 342 || 141,645 ||
|-
| [[Charf-Souani]]|| 511.01.06. || Arrondissement || 25,948 || 115,839 || 273 || 115,566 ||
|-
| [[Tanger-Medina]]|| 511.01.07. || Arrondissement || 40,929 || 173,477 || 2,323 || 171,154 ||
|-
| [[Al Manzla]]|| 511.03.01. || Rural commune || 555 || 3,031 || 0 || 3,031 ||
|-
| [[Aquouass Briech]]|| 511.03.03. || Rural commune || 787 || 4,132 || 3 || 4,129 ||
|-
| [[Azzinate]]|| 511.03.05. || Rural commune || 920 || 4,895 || 0 || 4,895 ||
|-
| [[Dar Chaoui]]|| 511.03.07. || Rural commune || 877 || 4,495 || 0 || 4,495 || 1,424 residents live in the centre, called [[Dar Chaoui]]; 3,071 residents live in rural areas.
|-
| [[Lkhaloua]]|| 511.03.09. || Rural commune || 2,405 || 12,946 || 1 || 12,945 ||
|-
| [[Sahel Chamali]]|| 511.03.11. || Rural commune || 1,087 || 5,588 || 2 || 5,586 ||
|-
| [[Sidi Lyamani]]|| 511.03.13. || Rural commune || 1,883 || 10,895 || 1 || 10,894 || 1,101 residents live in the centre, called [[Sidi Lyamani]]; 9,794 residents live in rural areas.
|-
| [[Boukhalef]]|| 511.81.03. || Rural commune || 3,657 || 18,699 || 4 || 18,695 || 3,187 residents live in the centre, called [[Gueznaia]]; 15,512 residents live in rural areas.
|-
|}
==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Tangier|Tangier Free Zone|Tanger-Med}}
[[File:Habour of Tanger Morocco.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Port of Tangier|alt=The Port of Tangier harbor]]
[[File:Marktstände in der Medina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Street in Tangier's Medina ("Old City")]]
Tangier is Morocco's second most important industrial centre after [[Casablanca]]. The industrial sectors are diversified: [[textile]], [[chemical]], [[wikt:mechanical|mechanical]], [[metallurgical]] and [[naval]]. Currently, the city has four [[industrial park]]s of which two have the status of [[free economic zone]] (see [[Tangier Free Zone]]).
Tangier's economy relies heavily on [[tourism]]. In the 1960s and '70s, Tangier formed part of the [[hippie trail]].<ref name="brad2">{{harvp|Davies|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H4QeOGV_zl4C&pg=PA120 120]}}.</ref> It became less popular and tourist attractions became run-down as cheap flights made central Moroccan cities like [[Marrakesh]] more accessible to European tourists; crime rose and a somewhat dangerous reputation drove more tourists away.<ref name="brad2" /> Since 2010, however, [[Mohammed VI of Morocco|King Mohammed{{nbsp}}VI]] has made a point of restoring the city's shipping and tourist facilities and improving its industrial base. Among other improvements, the beach was cleaned and lined with new cafes and clubs; the new commercial port means [[cruise ship]]s no longer unload beside cargo containers.<ref name="brad2" />
Seaside resorts have been increasing with projects funded by foreign investments. [[Real estate]] and [[construction]] companies have been investing heavily in tourist infrastructures. A bay delimiting the city centre extends for more than {{convert|7|km|0|abbr=on}}. The years 2007 and 2008 were particularly important for the city because of the completion of large construction projects; these include the Tangier-Mediterranean port ("[[Tanger-Med]]") and its industrial parks, a 45,000-seat sports stadium, an expanded business district, and renovated tourist infrastructure.
Tanger-Med, a new port {{convert|40|km|abbr=on|0}} outside Tangier proper, began construction in 2004 and became functional in 2007. Its site plays a key role in connecting maritime regions, as it is in a very critical position on the Strait of Gibraltar, which passes between Europe and Africa. The makeup of the new port is 85% transhipment 15% for domestic import and export activities.<ref>César Ducruet, Fatima Mohamed-Chérif, Najib Cherfaoui. Maghreb Port Cities in Transition: The Case of Tangier (n.d.): n. pag. Web.</ref> The port is distinguished by its size, infrastructure, and efficiency in managing the flow of ships. Tanger-Med has linked Morocco to Europe's freight industry. It has also helped connect Morocco to countries in the Mediterranean, Africa, and America. The port has allowed Tangier to become a more globalised city with new international opportunities that will help facilitate economic growth.<ref>Ouail El Im Rani Et Al., International Journal of Research in Management, Economics and Commerce, ISSN 2250-057X, Impact Factor: 6.384, Volume 06 Issue 07, July 2016, Page 73-81. Tangier Med Port: What Role for the Moroccan Economy and the International Trade? (n.d.): n. page. Web.</ref> The construction and operation of the port aimed to create 120,000 new jobs, 20,000 at the port and 100,000 resulting from growing economic activity.
[[Agriculture]] in the area of Tangier is tertiary and mainly cereal. The city is chiefly famed for [[tangerine]]s, a kind of [[mandarin orange]] hybrid first grown in the orchards then once south of the [[Medina quarter|medina]], but it was never commonly exported. As early as 1900, local consumption had already outstripped supply and required imports from [[Tetuan]] and elsewhere.<ref name=inthemidnighthour>{{harvp|Meakin|1901|p=[https://archive.org/stream/landofmoorscompr00meak/landofmoorscompr00meak#page/107/mode/1up 107]}}.</ref> Mass farming of tangerines instead began in [[Florida]] in the [[United States]], where the first tree was introduced at [[Palatka, Florida|Palatka]] by a Major Atway sometime before 1843.{{sfnp|Hume|1913|p=101}}
Artisanal trade in the medina ("Old City") specialises mainly in [[leather working]], handicrafts made from wood and silver, traditional clothing, and Moroccan-style shoes.
The city has grown quickly due to [[rural exodus]] from other smaller cities and villages. The 2014 population is more than three-times larger than 32 years ago (850.000 inhabitants in 2014 vs. 250,000 in 1982).{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} This phenomenon has resulted in the appearance of peripheral suburban districts, mainly inhabited by poor people, that often lack sufficient infrastructure.
In 2023 Tangier hosted the [[Connect (aviation forum)|Connect route development forum]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Greenbank |first1=Chloe |title=Airports and airlines connect in Tangier |url=https://www.regionalgateway.net/connect-2023-airports-and-airlines-gather-in-tangier/ |access-date=28 March 2023 |work=Regional Gateway |date=22 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Tourism: Morocco's big bet for 2023 |url=https://atalayar.com/en/content/tourism-moroccos-big-bet-2023 |work=Atalayar |language=en}}</ref>
==Notable landmarks==
[[File:Medina de Tánger.jpg|thumb|Gate of the Kasabah]]
[[File:Grand Mosque of Tangier street view (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|Portal of the [[Grand Mosque of Tangier]]]]
[[File:Tangier Medina (40115237384) (cropped) (cropped).jpg|right|thumb|Fountains of Bab al-Assa]]
[[File:Sinagoga, Tánger.jpg|thumb|Interior of the Moshe Nahon Synagogue]]
The old town is still surrounded by the remains of what was once more than {{convert|2000|yd|m ft|0|order=out}} of stone rampart. Most of it dates to the town's Portuguese occupation, with restoration work later undertaken at different times. Three major bastions were the Irish Tower (''Bordj al-Naʿam''), York Castle (''Bordj dar al-Barud''), and the ''Bordj al-Salam''.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=650}}
* [[Medina quarter|Medina]] (old city)
** [[Kasbah Palace, Tangier|Kasbah Palace]], former residence of the governors of Tangier, built on the site of the former English Upper Castle,{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=650}} now Museum of Mediterranean Cultures
** [[Kasbah Mosque (Tangier)|Kasbah Mosque]]
** Purported tomb of [[Ibn Battuta]]
** [[Petit Socco]], central square of the lower (southern) section of the medina
** [[Rue Es-Siaghine]] leading to the Petit Socco
** [[Dar Niaba]]
** [[Church of the Immaculate Conception (Tangier)|Church of the Immaculate Conception]]
** [[Grand Mosque of Tangier]]
** [[Hotel Continental (Tangier)|Hotel Continental]]
** Avraham Toledano Synagogue<ref>{{cite web |title=Avraham Toledano Synagogue, Tangier, Morocco |url=http://archive.diarna.org/site/detail/public/343/ |website=Archive |access-date=7 June 2024}}</ref>
** [[Beit Yehuda Synagogue]]
** [[Moshe Nahon Synagogue]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Moshe Nahon Synagogue, Tangier, Morocco |url= https://www.archnet.org/sites/16108 |website=Archnet |access-date=17 November 2024}}</ref>
** Rabbi Mordechai Bengio Synagogue, preserved as [[Fondation Lorin|Fondation Lorin Museum]]<ref>{{cite web |title= Synagogue Rabbi Mordechai Bengio (Musée-Fondation Lorin) |url= https://discoveringtangier.wordpress.com/2017/02/22/synagogue-rabbi-mordechai-bengio-musee-fondation-lorin/ |website=Discovering Tangier|access-date=20 November 2024}}</ref>
** [[American Legation, Tangier|Former American Legation]]
** [[Musée de Carmen-Macein]]
* ''Extra-muros'' downtown
** [[Lalla Abla Mosque]] on the port
** [[Grand Socco]], former marketplace and central city square outside the old city walls
** [[Mendoubia]] palace, now a museum of Moroccan resistance against colonialism, and its surrounding park on former cemeteries
** [[Sidi Bou Abib Mosque]]
** [[St Andrew's Church, Tangier|St Andrew's Church]]
** [[Museum of Contemporary Art (Tangier)|Museum of Contemporary Art]] in the former British Consulate
** [[Roman Catholic Cathedral of Tangier]]
** [[Abdelhafid Palace]]
** [[Mohammed V Mosque, Tangier|Mohammed V Mosque]]
** [[French Consulate General, Tangier|French Consulate General]] at the start of {{lang|fr|Boulevard Pasteur}}
** [[Moroccan Debt Administration]] building, now tourist office
** [[Gran Teatro Cervantes]]
** [[French Church of Tangier]]
** [[New Palace of Arts and Cultures]], is an architectural masterpiece that will play a central role in the 2024 International Jazz Day celebration.<ref>[https://fr.le360.ma/culture/video-en-avant-premiere-a-la-decouverte-du-nouveau-palais-des-arts-et-cultures-de-tanger-218669/ Vidéo. En avant-première, à la découverte du nouveau Palais des arts et cultures de Tanger] fr.le360.ma</ref><ref>[https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/tangier-selected-2024-global-host-city-international-jazz-day international-jazz-day] unesco.org</ref>
* Marshan neighbourhood
** [[Mendoub's Residence]]
** [[Marshan Palace, Tangier]]
** [[Stade de Marchan]]
** [[Café Hafa]]
* Further outskirts
** [[Cape Malabata]]
** [[Plaza de Toros Tangier|Plaza de Toros]], Tangier's [[bullring]]
** [[Charf Hill]]
** {{ill|Fondation pour la photographie Tanger|fr}}
** [[Perdicaris Park]]
** [[Cape Spartel]]
** [[Caves of Hercules]]
==Transport==
[[File:Al Boraq RGV2N2 at Tanger Ville.jpg|thumb|[[Al Boraq]] at the [[Tanger-Ville Railway Terminal]]]]
[[Rail transport|Railway]] lines connect [[Tanger-Ville railway station]] with [[Rabat]], [[Casablanca]] and [[Marrakesh]] in the south, and with [[Fes]] and [[Oujda]] in the east. The service is operated by [[ONCF]]. In November 2018 Africa's first high-speed train, the [[Kenitra–Tangier high-speed rail line]], was inaugurated, linking Tangier to [[Casablanca]] in 2 hours, 10 minutes. By 2020 improvements between Casablanca and [[Kenitra]] are planned to further reduce the journey to 1 hour and 30 minutes.
The [[Rabat–Tangier expressway]] connects Tangier to [[Fes]] via Rabat {{convert|250|km|0|abbr=on}}, and [[Settat]] via Casablanca {{convert|330|km|0|abbr=on}} and [[Tanger-Med]] port. The [[Ibn Batouta International Airport]] (formerly known as Tangier-Boukhalef) is {{convert|15|km|0|abbr=on}} south-west of the city centre.
The new [[Tanger-Med]] port is managed by the Danish firm [[A. P. Moller–Maersk Group]] and will free up the old port for tourist and recreational development.
Tangier's [[Tangier Ibn Battouta Airport|Ibn Batouta International Airport]] and the rail tunnel will serve as the gateway to the Moroccan Riviera, the littoral area between Tangier and Oujda. Traditionally, the northern coast was a rural stronghold, with some of the best beaches on the [[Mediterranean]]. It is slated for rapid urban development. The Ibn Batouta International Airport has been modernised to accommodate more flights. The biggest airline at the airport is [[Royal Air Maroc]].
==Education==
Tangier offers four types of education systems: Arabic, French, Spanish and English. Each offers classes starting from pre-Kindergarten up to the 12th grade, as for German in the three last years of high school. The ''[[Baccalauréat]]'', or [[high school diploma]] are the diplomas offered after clearing the 12 grades.
Many universities are inside and outside the city. Universities like the Institut Supérieur International de Tourisme (ISIT), which grants diplomas, offer courses ranging from [[business administration]] to [[hotel]] [[management]]. The institute is one of the most prestigious [[tourism]] schools in the country. Other colleges such as the École Nationale de Commerce et de Gestion ([http://www.encgt.ma ENCG-T]) is among the biggest [[business school]]s in the country as well as École Nationale des Sciences appliquées ([http://www.ensat.ac.ma ENSA-T]), a rising [[engineering school]] for applied sciences. University known as Abdelmaled Essaadi holding many what they mainly known as faculties; Law, Economics and Social sciences ([http://www.fdtanger.ma FSJEST]) and the FST of Technical Sciences. and the most attended Institut of ISTA of the OFPPT.
===Primary education===
There are more than a hundred Moroccan [[primary school]]s, dispersed across the city. Private and public schools, they offer education in Arabic, French and some school English until the 5th grade. Mathematics, Arts, Science Activities and nonreligious modules are commonly taught in the primary school.
===International primary institutions===
* [[American School of Tangier]]
* École Adrien Berchet (French primary school)
* [[Groupe scolaire Le Détroit]] (French school)
* Colegio Ramón y Cajal (Spanish primary school)
* English College of Tangier
===International high schools===
* [[American School of Tangier]]
* [[Lycée Regnault de Tanger]] (French high school)
* [[Groupe scolaire Le Détroit]] (French school)
* [[Instituto Español Severo Ochoa]] (Spanish high school)
* [[English College of Tangier]]
* [[Mohammed Fatih Turkish School of Tangier]]
* [[Tangier Anglo Moroccan School]]
==Culture==
[[File:Eugène Delacroix - The Fanatics of Tangier - WGA06195.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''The Fanatics of Tangier'' (1830s) by [[Eugène Delacroix]]]]
[[File:Augustins - Le Sultan du Maroc - Eugène Delacroix.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''[[Abd al-Rahman of Morocco|Muley-Abd-Err-Rahmann]], Sultan of Morocco, Leaving [[Dar el Makhzen (Tangier)|Mequinez Palace]]'' (1845) by [[Eugène Delacroix]]]]
[[File:Ernst ladies tangiers.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''Young Ladies on a Terrace in Tangiers'' (1880s) by [[Rudolf Ernst]]]]
[[File:Enrique Simonet - Atardecer en Tanger 1914.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''Dusk at Tangier'' (1914) by [[Enrique Simonet]]]]
{{blockquote|Never in my life have I observed anything more bizarre than the first sight of Tangier. It is a tale out of the ''[[Thousand and One Nights]]''... A prodigious mix of races and costumes...This whole world moves about with an activity that seems feverish.|[[Eugène Delacroix]], in a letter to [[Alexis de Tocqueville]]<ref>{{citation |first=Patrick |last=Noon |author2=Christopher Riopelle |display-authors=1 |ref={{harvid|Noon et al.|2015}} |title=Delacroix and the Rise of Modern Art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m5A6rgEACAAJ |date=2015 |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-1-85709-575-3 |page=25 }}.</ref>}}
When [[Charles-Edgar de Mornay|Count de Mornay]] traveled to Morocco in 1832 to establish a treaty supportive of the recent [[French conquest of Algeria|French annexation of Algeria]], he took along the [[Romanticism#Visual arts|Romantic painter]] [[Eugène Delacroix]]. Delacroix not only reveled in the [[orientalism]] of the place; he also took it as a new and living model for his works on [[classical antiquity]]: "The Greeks and Romans are here at my door, in the Arabs who wrap themselves in a white blanket and look like Cato or Brutus..."<ref>{{citation |author=[[Eugène Delacroix]] |display-authors=0 |editor-last=Wellington |editor-first=Hubert |title=The Journal of Eugène Delacroix |publisher=Cornell University Press |date=1980 |page=xv }}.</ref> He sketched and painted watercolours continuously, writing at the time "I am like a man in a dream, seeing things he fears will vanish from him." He returned to his sketches and memories of North Africa for the rest of his career, with 80 oil paintings like ''The Fanatics of Tangier'' and ''[[Women of Algiers]]'' becoming legendary and influential on artists such as [[Vincent van Gogh|Van Gogh]], [[Paul Gauguin|Gauguin]], and [[Pablo Picasso|Picasso]]. They were particularly struck by the quality of the light: to [[Paul Cézanne|Cézanne]], "All this luminous colour... seems... that it enters the eye like a glass of wine running into your gullet and it makes you drunk straight away".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2016/feb/05/damned-souls-decadence-eugene-delacroix-hero |title=Damnation, Dante and Decadence: Why Eugène Delacroix is making a hero's return|last1=Prodger|first1=Michael |date=5 February 2016 |website=The Guardian |access-date=30 April 2016}}</ref> Tangier subsequently became an obligatory stop for artists seeking to experience the colours and light he spoke of for themselves—with varying results. [[Matisse]] made several sojourns in Tangier, always staying at the Grand Hotel Villa de France. "I have found landscapes in Morocco," he claimed, "exactly as they are described in Delacroix's paintings." His students in turn had their own; the Californian artist [[Richard Diebenkorn]] was directly influenced by the haunting colours and rhythmic patterns of Matisse's Morocco paintings.
The multicultural placement of [[Muslim]], [[Christians|Christian]] and [[Jewish]] communities and the foreign immigrants attracted writer [[George Orwell]], writer and composer [[Paul Bowles]], playwright [[Tennessee Williams]], the beat writers [[William S. Burroughs]], [[Allen Ginsberg]] and [[Jack Kerouac]], the painter [[Brion Gysin]] and the music group the [[Rolling Stones]], who all lived in or visited Tangier during different periods of the 20th century.
In the 1940s and until 1956 when the city was an [[International Zone]], the city served as a playground for eccentric millionaires, a meeting place for [[Espionage|secret agents]] and a variety of crooks and a mecca for speculators and gamblers, an Eldorado for the fun-loving "Haute Volée". During the [[Second World War]] the [[Office of Strategic Services]] operated out of Tangier for various operations in North Africa.<ref>[http://www.legation.org/public_html/relate.htm The American Legation at Tangier, Morocco] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080124225147/http://www.legation.org/public_html/relate.htm |date=January 24, 2008 }}</ref>
Around the same time, a circle of writers emerged which was to have a profound and lasting literary influence. This included [[Paul Bowles]], who lived and wrote for over half a century in the city, [[Tennessee Williams]] and [[Jean Genet]] as well as [[Mohamed Choukri]] (one of [[North Africa]]'s most controversial and widely read authors), [[Abdeslam Boulaich]], [[Larbi Layachi]], [[Mohammed Mrabet]] and [[Ahmed Yacoubi]]. Among the best known works from this period is Choukri's ''For Bread Alone''. Originally written in Classical Arabic, the English edition was the result of close collaboration with Bowles (who worked with Choukri to provide the translation and supplied the introduction). [[Tennessee Williams]] described it as "a true document of human desperation, shattering in its impact." Independently, [[William S. Burroughs]] lived in Tangier for four years and wrote ''[[Naked Lunch]]'', whose locale of [[Interzone (book)|Interzone]] is an allusion to the city.
After several years of gradual disentanglement from Spanish and French colonial control, Morocco reintegrated the city of Tangier at the signing of the [[Tangier Protocol]] on 29 October 1956. Tangier remains a very popular tourist destination for cruise ships and day visitors from [[Spain]] and [[Gibraltar]].
===Language===
{{Unreferenced section|date=March 2021}}
Most of the inhabitants of Tangier speak a very distinctive variety of [[Moroccan Arabic]] which differs from other Darija counterparts. The difference resides in pronunciation, tempo, grammar and a unique vocabulary. Arabic is used in government documentation and on road signs together with French. French is taught in primary schools and high schools and used in universities and large businesses. Spanish is well understood and spoken fluently, mainly exclusively by Tangierian locals. English, on the other hand, has been and still is used in tourist sectors.
The autochthonous population of Tangier has been declining drastically since the mid-2000s, as many locals, especially those from the younger generations, have moved to nearby Spain. While the industrial sector is expanding constantly, the internal immigration from the south to north is increasing rapidly. As a consequence, the Tangierian dialect is losing its distinctiveness or is being altered (in a recent study, social media has been depicted as one of these factors).
Nowadays, the Tangierian dialect is less prominent in public places, with the southern Darija dialect being more common in the area, to the extent that some observers question if Tangier retains its identity as it was before.
===Religion===
[[File:Cattan_1.jpg|thumb|[[Church of the Immaculate Conception (Tangier)|The Catholic Cathedral of Tangier]]]]
Due to its Christian past before the Muslim conquest, it remains a [[titular see]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1913}} Originally, the city was part of the larger Roman province of [[Mauretania Caesariensis]], which included much of North Africa. Later the area was subdivided, with the eastern part keeping the former name and the newer part receiving the name of [[Mauretania Tingitana]]. It is not known exactly at what period there may have been an episcopal see at Tangier in ancient times, but in the Middle Ages Tangier was used as a [[titular see]] (i.e., an honorific fiction for the appointment of curial and auxiliary bishops), placing it in Mauretania Tingitana. For the historical reasons given above, one official list of the [[Roman Curia]] places the see in Mauretania Caesarea.
Towards the end of the 3rd century, Tangier was the scene of the martyrdoms of [[Marcellus of Tangier|St.{{nbsp}}Marcellus]], mentioned in the [[Roman Martyrology]] on 30 October, and of [[Cassian of Tangier|St.{{nbsp}}Cassian]], mentioned on 3 December.{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1913}}
Under the Portuguese, the [[Diocese of Tanger|diocese of Tangier]] was a [[suffragan]] of [[Patriarchate of Lisbon|Lisbon]] but, in 1570, it was united with the [[diocese of Ceuta]]. Six Bishops of Tangier from this period are known, the first{{mdash}}who did not reside in his see{{mdash}}in 1468. During the era of the French and Spanish protectorates over Morocco, Tangier was the residence of the [[Prefect Apostolic]] of Morocco, the mission having been founded on 28 November 1630 and entrusted to the [[Friars Minor]]. At the time, it had a Catholic church, several chapels, schools and a hospital. The Prefecture Apostolic was raised to the status of [[Vicar Apostolic of Marocco|Vicariate Apostolic]] of Morocco on 14 April 1908. On 14 November 1956, it became the [[Archbishop of Tangier|Archdiocese of Tangier]].<ref>''Annuario Pontificio'' 2010, p. 721</ref>
[[File:Moroccan Christians from Tangier.jpg|thumb|right|Moroccan Christians from Tangier.]]
The city also has the Anglican [[Church of Saint Andrew, Tangier|church of Saint Andrew]]. Since independence in 1956, the European population has decreased substantially. In the years leading up to the [[First World War]], [[European Moroccans|European]] [[Christians]] formed almost a quarter the population of Tangier.{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1911}}{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1913}} The city also is still home to a small community of [[Christianity in Morocco|Moroccan Christians]], as well as a small group of foreign [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Protestant]] residents.<ref name="state.gov">{{Cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/MOROCCO-2018-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUS-FREEDOM-REPORT.pdf |title=MOROCCO 2018 INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM REPORT |access-date=2021-01-12 |archive-date=2021-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210402105510/https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/MOROCCO-2018-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUS-FREEDOM-REPORT.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/29/world/africa/pope-francis-morocco-christians.html |title=Pope Francis' Visit to Morocco Raises Hopes for Its Christians |work=The New York Times |date=29 March 2019 |access-date=2021-01-12 |archive-date=2019-10-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001050723/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/29/world/africa/pope-francis-morocco-christians.html |url-status=live |last1=Alami |first1=Aida }}</ref>
Jews have a [[History of the Jews in Morocco|long history]] in Tangier. In the years leading up to the [[First World War]], [[Judaism in Morocco|Jews]] formed almost a quarter the population of Tangier.{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1911}}{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1913}} According to the [[World Jewish Congress]] there were only 150 [[Moroccan Jews]] remaining in Tangier.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/about/communities/MA |title=Jewish in Morocco |access-date=2021-01-12 |archive-date=2019-04-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402004157/http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/about/communities/MA |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Sport===
Tangierians regard football as the primary entertainment when it comes to sport-material. There are several football fields around the city. Tangier would have been one of the host cities for the [[2015 Africa Cup of Nations]] football tournament, which would be played at the new [[Ibn Batouta Stadium]] and in other cities across Morocco, until Morocco was banned from participating the [[Africa Cup of Nations]] due to their denial.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110201184029/http://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/news/newsid=1373321.html Morocco then South Africa to host Cups]. FIFA.com (2011-01-29). Retrieved on 2011-06-04.</ref> Instead Tangier will host matches for the [[2025 Africa Cup of Nations|2025 edition]] after Guinea withdraw from hosting. It could also host matches for the [[2030 FIFA World Cup]].
Basketball comes the second most practised sport in Tangier. The city is known for their local teams IRT, Ajax Tanger, Juventus Tangier and so on.
[[National Cricket Stadium, Tangier|National Cricket Stadium]] is the only top-class cricket stadium in [[Morocco]]. Stadium hosted its first International Tournament from 12 to 21 August 2002. [[Pakistan cricket team|Pakistan]], [[South Africa cricket team|South Africa]] and [[Sri Lanka cricket team|Sri Lanka]] competed in a 50-overs one day [[2002 Morocco Cup|triangular series]]. The [[International Cricket Council]] has granted international status to the Tangier Cricket Stadium, official approval that will allow it to become [[North Africa]]'s first international cricket venue.
=== Museums ===
The [[American Legation, Tangier|Museum of the American Legation]], whose building was granted to the United States in 1821 by the Sultan Moulay Suliman served as a consulate of the United States and a later legation, as well as a high traffic post for the intelligence agents of the Second World War and a Peace Corps training facility. Today, its courtyards and narrow corridors serve as an elaborate museum that demonstrates relations between the United States and Morocco and the Moroccan heritage, including a wing dedicated to [[Paul Bowles]], where you can see the documents and photographs of the writer donated to the museum by the gallerist and friend of the writer [[Gloria Kirby]] in 2010.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.paulbowles.org/paulbowlesmuseum.html|title=PAUL BOWLES WING: Tangier American Legation (TALIM)|website=www.paulbowles.org|access-date=2019-03-27|archive-date=2019-12-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227150201/http://www.paulbowles.org/paulbowlesmuseum.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[Fondation Lorin]] (Musée de la Fondation Lorin) opened in 1930 in a former synagogue. In addition to art, there are newspapers, photographs and posters on display.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Visit Africa's Tangier City, Morocco |url=https://visitafrica.site/destinations/experience-egypt/abu-simbel-temples/ |access-date=2021-04-24 |website=visitafrica.site |language=en-GB}}</ref>
===In popular culture===
{{main|Tangier in popular culture}}
====Espionage====
Tangier has been reputed as a [[safe house]] for international [[spying]] activities.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pennell |first=C. R. |title=Morocco since 1830: A History |year=1999 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-1-85065-426-1 |page=257 |chapter=Wars: The Second World War in Morocco }}</ref> Its position during the [[Cold War]] and during other spying periods of the 19th and 20th centuries is legendary.
Tangier acquired the reputation of a spying and smuggling centre and attracted foreign capital due to political neutrality and commercial liberty at that time. It was via a British bank in Tangier that the [[Bank of England]] in 1943 for the first time obtained samples of the high-quality forged British currency produced by the Nazis in "[[Operation Bernhard]]".
The city has also been a subject for many [[spy fiction]] books and films.
== Notable people ==
{{main|List of people from Tangier}}
* [[Ibn Battuta]] (1304–1378), Moroccan scholar and traveler who went on a worldwide quest.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle = Ibn Batuta |volume= 14 |first1=Henry |last1=Yule |author-link1=Henry Yule |first2=Charles Raymond |last2=Beazley |author-link2=Raymond Beazley|pages=219-220|short=1}}</ref>
* [[Roger Elliott (governor)|Roger Elliott]] ({{Circa|1665}}–1714), first British Governor of Gibraltar
* [[Alexander Spotswood]] (1676–1740), American Lieutenant-Colonel and Lieutenant Governor of Virginia.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Spotswood, Alexander |volume= 25 | page = 735 |short=1}}</ref>
* [[Ion Hanford Perdicaris]] (1840–1925), Greek-American author, lawyer and painter; he became the unofficial head of Tangier's foreign community
* [[Alexandre Rey Colaço]] (1854–1928), Portuguese pianist
* [[Walter Burton Harris]] (1866–1933), journalist, writer, traveller and socialite
* [[Heinz Tietjen]] (1881–1967), German music composer
* [[Abdullah al-Ghumari]] (1910–1993), Muslim cleric, scholar of hadith, jurist and theologian
* [[Paul Bowles]] (1910–1999), American writer, composer and ethnomusicologist
* [[William S. Burroughs]] (1914–1997), Beat Generation writer, wrote ''[[Naked Lunch]]'' during the 1950s in Tangier.
* [[Abderrahmane Youssoufi]] (1924–2020), former Prime Minister of Morocco
* [[Ahmed Yacoubi]] (1928–1985), international painter and storyteller
*[[Samuel Toledano]] (1929–1996), Spanish-Jewish prominent leader of the Jewish community in Spain
* [[Claude-Jean Philippe]] (1933–2016), French film critic
* [[Emmanuel Hocquard]] (1940–2019), French poet
* [[Shlomo Ben-Ami]] (born 1943), Israeli diplomat, politician, and historian
* [[Jean-Luc Mélenchon]] (born 1951), French politician, currently MEP
* [[Ralph Benmergui]] (born 1955), Canadian TV and radio host at the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
* [[Helena Maleno]] (born 1970), human rights defender, journalist and writer
* [[Karim Debbagh]] (born 1972), Moroccan film producer
* [[Yasser Harrak]] (born {{Circa|1975}}), writer and human rights activist.
* [[Sanaa Hamri]] (born 1977), Moroccan music video director.
* [[Ali Boussaboun]] (born 1979), former international footballer with 12 caps for [[Morocco national football team|Morocco]]
* [[Zakaria Ramhani]] (born 1983), visual artist
==Twin towns – sister cities==
{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in Morocco}}
Tangier is [[Sister city|twinned]] with:<ref>{{cite web |title=Un jumelage Tanger - Phuket (Thaïlande) en projet|url=https://www.bladi.net/jumelage-tanger-phuket,44463.html|website=bladi.net|language=fr|date=2016-02-19|access-date=2020-10-19}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Algeciras]], Spain<ref>{{cite web |title=Algeciras y Tánger, hermanadas en políticas turísticas y culturales|url=https://www.lavozdigital.es/cadiz/campo-gibraltar/lvdi-algeciras-y-tanger-hermanadas-politicas-turisticas-y-culturales-201809241131_noticia.html|website=lavozdigital.es|publisher=La Voz de Cádiz|language=es|date=2018-09-24|access-date=2020-10-19}}</ref>
*{{flagicon|TUN}} [[Bizerte]], Tunisia
*{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Cádiz]], Spain
*{{flagicon|VIE}} [[Da Nang]], Vietnam<ref>{{cite web |title=Tanger et Da Nang liées par un accord de jumelage|url=https://lematin.ma/express/2019/tanger-da-nang-liees-accord-jumelage/313253.html|website=lematin.ma|publisher=Le Matin|language=fr|date=2019-03-29|access-date=2020-10-19}}</ref>
*{{flagicon|POR}} [[Faro, Portugal|Faro]], Portugal
*{{flagicon|BEL}} [[Liège]], Belgium
*{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Metz]], France
*{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Puteaux]], France<ref>{{cite web |title=Jumelage et Pactes d'amitié|url=http://www.puteaux.fr/Ma-ville/Jumelage-et-Pactes-d-amitie|website=puteaux.fr|publisher=Puteaux|language=fr|access-date=2020-10-22}}</ref>
*{{flagicon|REU}} [[Saint-Denis, Réunion|Saint-Denis]], Réunion, France
*{{flagicon|BEL}} [[Saint-Josse-ten-Noode]], Belgium<ref>{{cite web |title=Decentralized international cooperation|url=http://saint-josse.irisnet.be/en/municipality/social-cohesion-solidarity/decentralized-international-cooperation|website=saint-josse.irisnet.be|publisher=Saint-Josse-ten-Noode|date=2019-05-21|access-date=2020-10-19}}</ref>
*{{flagicon|CHL}} [[Santiago]], Chile
*{{flagicon|ALG}} [[Sétif]], Algeria
<!--Beaugency, Casablanca, Málaga - not twinning-->
*{{flagicon|BRA}} [[Rio de Janeiro]], Brazil
{{div col end}}
==Gallery==
<gallery widths="200px" heights="160px">
Tangier (23171358122).jpg | Panoramic view of Tangier
Palace of Justice, Tangier, Morocco - WDL.png |Old tribunal, [[Kasbah Mosque (Tangier)|Kasbah Mosque]], [[Kasbah Palace, Tangier|Kasbah Palace]] entrance and [[Bayt al-mal]] (treasury), c.{{nbsp}}1900
Kasbah, Tánger, Marruecos, 2015-12-11, DD 27.JPG |Former palace entrance, treasury and prison, 2015
File:Cementerio judío, Tánger, Marruecos, 2015-12-11, DD 33-35 PAN.jpg| Jewish Cemetery
File:José Navarro Llorens - El zoco.jpg | Souk
File:Muralla, Tánger, Marruecos, 2015-12-11, DD 69-71 HDR.JPG | City walls
</gallery>
==See also==
*[[History of Morocco]]
*[[List of cities in Morocco]]
*[[Tingis]] & [[Mauretania Tingitana]]
*[[List of Colonial Heads of Tangier]]
*[[English Tangier]]
*[[Tangier International Zone]]
== References ==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}
=== General bibliography ===
{{See also|Timeline of Tangier#Bibliography|l1=Bibliography of the history of Tangier}}
* {{Cite EB9 |wstitle= Tangiers |volume= XXIII |page=46 |short= 1}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Tangier |volume= 26 | pages = 397&ndash;398 |short= 1 |ref={{sfnref|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1911}}}}
* {{citation |first=Agha Ibrahim |last=Akram |author-link=Agha Ibrahim Akram |title=The Muslim Conquest of Spain |publisher=Army Education Press |location=Rawalpindi |date=1980 }}.
* {{citation |last=Amitay |first=Ory |contribution=Procopius of Caesarea and the Girgashite Diaspora |title=Journal for the Study of the Pseudoepigrapha |volume=20, No.&nbsp;4 |date=2011 |pages=257–276 |citeseerx=10.1.1.878.3222 }}.
* {{citation |last=Baedeker |first=Karl |url=https://archive.org/details/01710943.5406.emory.edu/01710943_5406#page/n599/mode/2up |title=Spain and Portugal: Handbook for Travellers |date=1901 |edition=2nd |location=Leipzig |publisher=Karl Baedeker |contribution-url=https://archive.org/stream/01710943.5406.emory.edu/01710943_5406#page/n595/mode/2up |contribution=Tangier }}.
* {{citation |last=Blankinship |first=Khalid Yahya |date=1994 |title=The End of the Jihad State |publisher=SUNY Press |location=Albany |isbn=978-0-7914-1827-7 }}.
* {{citation |last=Brett |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8C1WDwAAQBAJ |title=Islamisation: Comparative Perspectives from History |editor-last=Peacock |editor-first=Andrew C.S. |display-editors=0 |contribution=Conversion of the Berbers to Islam |date=2017 |location=Edinburgh |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8C1WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA189 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8C1WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA189 189–198] |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=9781474417136 }}.
* {{citation |first=Christina |last=Civantos |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GO0_DwAAQBAJ |title=The Afterlife of al-Andalus: Muslim Iberia in Contemporary Arab and Hispanic Narratives |location=Albany |publisher=State University of New York Press |date=2017 |isbn=9781438466712 }}.
* {{citation |last=Collins |first=Roger |title=Count Julian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ra9BtjLRNMsC&pg=PA455 |date=2003 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9780415939188 }} & {{citation |editor-last=Gerli |editor-first=E. Michael |title=Medieval Iberia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ra9BtjLRNMsC |editor2=Samuel G. Armistead |editor3=Robert I. Burns |editor4=Pedro M. Cátedra |editor5=Alan Deyermond |editor6=Ana Domínguez Rodríguez |editor7=Harold V. Livermore |editor8=Joseph F. O'Callaghan |editor9=Norman Roth |editor10=Robert Stevenson |display-editors=0 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |contribution=Ṭarīq ibn Ziyād |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ra9BtjLRNMsC&pg=PA771 |isbn=9780415939188 |year=2003 |ref=none}}.
* {{citation |last=Davies |first=Ethel |contribution=Tangier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4QeOGV_zl4C |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4QeOGV_zl4C&pg=PA119 |pages=119 ff |title=North Africa: The Roman Coast |publisher=Bradt Travel Guides |date=2009 |location=Chalfont St Peter |isbn=9781841622873 }}.
* {{citation |last=Elbl |first=Martin Malcolm |contribution=(Re)claiming Walls: The Fortified Médina of Tangier under Portuguese Rule (1471–1661) and as a Modern Heritage Artefact |title=Portuguese Studies Review |number=15 |date=2009 |pages=103–192 }}.
* {{citation |last=Elbl |first=Martin Malcolm |contribution=Tangier's Qasba Before the Trace Italienne Citadel of 1558–1566: The 'Virtual' Archaeology of a Vanished Islamic and Portuguese Fortress |title=Portuguese Studies Review |number=17 |date=2012 |pages=1–44 |contribution-url=https://www.academia.edu/3658825/_Tangiers_Qasba_Before_the_Trace_Italienne_Citadel_of_1558-1566_A_Virtual_Archaeology_of_Vanished_Maghribi_and_Portuguese_Fortifications_ }}.
* {{citation |last=Elbl |first=Martin Malcolm |title=Portuguese Tangier (1471–1662): Colonial Urban Fabric as Cross-Cultural Skeleton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AeTBAgAAQBAJ |date=2013 |publisher=Baywolf Press |location=Peterborough |isbn=9780921437505 }}.
* Elbl, Martin Malcolm (2021), [https://www.academia.edu/79480783/_A_Tale_of_Two_Breakwaters_Modelling_Portuguese_and_English_Works_in_the_Port_of_Tangier_Bathymetric_Space_1500s_1683_ "A Tale of Two Breakwaters: Modelling Portuguese and English Works in the Port of Tangier Bathymetric Space — 1500s–1683"] ''Portuguese Studies Review,'' vol. No. 29, pp.&nbsp;55–136.
* {{citation |last=Finlayson |first=Iain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z69sBQAAQBAJ |title=Tangier: City of the Dream |publisher=Tauris Parke |location=London |date=1992 |isbn=9781780769264 }}.
* {{citation |last=Gerli |first=E. Michael |editor-last=Gerli |editor-first=E. Michael |title=Medieval Iberia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ra9BtjLRNMsC |editor2=Samuel G. Armistead |editor3=Robert I. Burns |editor4=Pedro M. Cátedra |editor5=Alan Deyermond |editor6=Ana Domínguez Rodríguez |editor7=Harold V. Livermore |editor8=Joseph F. O'Callaghan |editor9=Norman Roth |editor10=Robert Stevenson |display-editors=0 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |date=2003 |contribution=Mūsā ibn Nusayr |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ra9BtjLRNMsC&pg=PA598 |isbn=9780415939188 }}.
* {{citation |last=Ghaki |first=Mansour |contribution=Toponymie et Onomastique Libyques: L'Apport de l'Écriture Punique/Néopunique |contribution-url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/50105050/Toponymie_et_onomastique_Lapport_de_lecriture_punique_neopunique.pdf |pages=65–71 |date=2015 |location=Naples |publisher=Unior |editor=Anna Maria di Tolla |display-editors=0 |title=La Lingua nella Vita e la Vita della Lingua: Itinerari e Percorsi degli Studi Berberi |series=Studi Africanistici: Quaderni di Studi Berberi e Libico-Berberi |number=4 |isbn=978-88-6719-125-3 |issn=2283-5636 |access-date=2018-11-07 |archive-date=2020-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428044658/https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/50105050/Toponymie_et_onomastique_Lapport_de_lecriture_punique_neopunique.pdf |url-status=dead }}. {{in lang|fr}}
* Haller, Dieter (2021). ''[https://www.transcript-verlag.de/978-3-8376-5649-7/tangier/gibraltar-a-tale-of-one-city/?c=310000081&number=978-3-8394-5649-1 Tangier/Gibraltar: A Tale of One City—An Ethnography]''. Bielefeld: Transcript.
* {{citation |last=Hartley |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC |title=Cities of the Middle East and North Africa |editor-last=Dumper |editor-first=Michael R.T. |editor2=Bruce E. Stanley |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=[[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] |date=2007 |display-editors=0 |contribution=Tangier |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3SapTk5iGDkC&pg=PA345 |pages=345–347 |isbn=9781576079195 }}.
* {{citation |last=Head |first=Barclay |editor=Ed Snible |author2=G.F. Hill |author3=George MacDonald |author4=W. Wroth |display-authors=1 |display-editors=0 |url=http://snible.org/coins/hn/index.html |title=Historia Numorum |contribution=Mauretania |contribution-url=http://snible.org/coins/hn/numidia.html#mauretania |pages=887 ff |date=1911 |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |ref={{harvid|Head et al.|1911}} }}.
* {{citation |first=H. Harold |last=Hume |title=Citrus Fruits and Their Culture |date=1913 |publisher=O. Judd Co |location=New York }}.
* {{citation |last=Ilahiane |first=Hsain |title=Historical Dictionary of the Berbers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aRYuDgAAQBAJ |edition=2nd |location=Lanham |publisher=Rowman & Littlefeld |date=2010 |isbn=9781442281820 }}.
* {{citation |last=Lévi-Provençal |first=Évariste |author-link=Évariste Lévi-Provençal |contribution=Tangier |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ro--tXw_hxMC&pg=PA650 |pages=650–652 |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam |volume=IV |editor=[[Martin Theodoor Houtsma]] |editor2=Arent Jan Wensinck |editor3=[[Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb]] |editor4=Wilhelm Heffening |editor5=[[Évariste Lévi-Provençal]] |display-editors=0 |location=Leiden |publisher=E.J. Brill |date=1936 |title-link=Encyclopaedia of Islam }}.
* {{citation |last=Meakin |first=Budgett |title=The Moorish Empire |location=London |publisher=Swan Sonnenschein & Co |date=1899 |url=https://archive.org/details/moorishempireah02meakgoog/page/n10 }}.
* {{citation |last=Meakin |first=Budgett |title=The Land of the Moors: A Comprehensive Description |url=https://archive.org/details/landofmoorscompr00meak/page/n11 |location=London |publisher=Swan Sonnenschein & Co |date=1901 }}.
* {{citation |last=Pétridés |first=Sophron |contribution=[[:s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Tingis|Tingis]] |title=Catholic Encyclopedia |volume=XIV |date=1913 |location=New York |publisher=Encyclopedia Press |editor=Charles G. Herbermann |editor2=Edward A. Pace |editor3=Condé B. Fallen |editor4=Thomas J. Shahan |editor5=John J. Wynne |display-editors=0 |ref={{harvid|''Cath. Enc.''|1913}} |title-link=:s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913) }}.
* {{citation |first=Duane W. |last=Roller |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AFpzZfm7WdYC |title=Through the Pillars of Herakles: Greco-Roman Exploration of the Atlantic |date=2006 |publisher=Routledge |location=Abington |isbn=9781134192328 }}.
* {{citation |last=Routh |first=Enid M.G. |title=Tangier: England's Lost Atlantic Outpost |date=1912 |url=https://archive.org/details/tangierenglandsl00rout |location=London |publisher=John Murray }}.
* {{citation |last=Ruiz |first=Ana |title=Medina Mayrit: The Origins of Madrid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y5VbQMltSLcC |location=New York |publisher=Algora Publishing |date=2012 |isbn=9780875869254 }}.
==External links==
{{commons category|Tangier}}
{{NSRW Poster}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
*[http://www.legation.org Official site of The Tangier American Legation Institute for Moroccan Studies]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150316104721/http://archnet.org/sites/8435 History, description, and images of Tangier on Archnet]
*[https://photos.nomadicnotes.com/morocco/tangier Tangier photo gallery]
*[https://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2010/09/03/travel/20100912TANGIER.html?ref=multimedia Navigating Tangier's Labyrinth] – slideshow by ''[[The New York Times]]''
*{{cite web |url=http://www.islamicarchitecturedatabase.org/ircica/index2.php?page=Country&id=34 |title=Tangier |work=Islamic Cultural Heritage Database |publisher=Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Research Centre for Islamic History, Art and Culture |location=Istanbul |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130427083717/http://www.islamicarchitecturedatabase.org/ircica/index2.php?page=Country&id=34 |archive-date=2013-04-27 }}
*[https://archnet.org/authorities/3987 Tangier on Archnet] – History, sites, photos (historic and contemporary), and media
*[http://historic-cities.huji.ac.il/morocco/tanger/tanger.html Old maps of Tangier], [http://historic-cities.huji.ac.il/historic_cities.html Historic Cities] site
{{Tangier}}
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[[Category:Tangier| ]]
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