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{{short description|Ottoman Empire reform period (1839–1876)}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=September 2016}}
{{History of the Ottoman Empire sidebar |Timeline=Timeline of Tanzimat}}
The '''{{Transliteration|ota|Tanzimat}}{{efn|Currently, in French, the word "Tanzimat" is used as a plural, as in "Les Tanzimat". At the time, when French was [[Languages of the Ottoman Empire|a common language for the educated in the empire]], the word was often treated in the singular, as "Le Tanzimat".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strauss |first=Johann |url=https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/menalib/download/pdf/2734659?originalFilename=true |title=The First Ottoman Experiment in Democracy |publisher=[[Orient-Institut Istanbul]] |year=2010 |editor-last=Herzog, Christoph |location=[[Würzburg]] |pages=21–51 |chapter=A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire: Translations of the ''Kanun-ı Esasi'' and Other Official Texts into Minority Languages |editor-last2=Malek Sharif}}</ref> For why French is important, see [[Languages of the Ottoman Empire]]}}''' ({{IPA|tr|tanziˈmat|lang}}; {{langx|ota|تنظيمات|translit=Tanẓîmât|lit=Reorganization}}, ''see'' [[wikt:nizam#Turkish|nizam]]) was a period of Western influenced reform in the [[Ottoman Empire]] that began with the [[Edict of Gülhane]] in 1839. Its goals were to modernize and consolidate the social and political foundations of the Ottoman Empire in order to secure territorial integrity against internal nationalist movements and external aggressive powers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tanzimat Reforms |url=https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/tanzimat-reforms |access-date=2024-05-23 |website=rpl.hds.harvard.edu |language=en}}</ref> The reforms encouraged [[Ottomanism]] among the diverse ethnic groups of the Empire and attempted to stem the [[rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire]].
Different functions of government received reform, were completely reorganized, or started from scratch. Among institutions that received significant attention throughout this period included legislative functions, secularization and codification of the legal system, crackdowns on the slave trade, education, property law, law enforcement, and the military, to name a few. The end goal was to establish a powerful and centralized [[Government of the late Ottoman Empire|national government]]. Ottoman statesmen also worked with reformers of the many confessional communities of the empire, ''[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets]]'', to codify, and in some cases democratize, their confessional governments.
The Tanzimat built on previous reform efforts of Sultan [[Mahmud II]]. During its height, the [[Sublime Porte|Porte]]'s bureaucracy overshadowed the sultans. Leading "'''Men of the Tanzimat'''" included [[Mustafa Reşid Pasha]] in the period of 1839–1855, and then [[Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha]] and [[Mehmed Fuad Pasha|Keçecizade Fuad Pasha]] from the early 1850s to 1871. After Âli Pasha's death, the spirit of reorganization turned towards the imperial [[social contract]], in the form of the [[Constitution of the Ottoman Empire|1876 Ottoman Constitution]], written by [[Midhat Pasha]]. The Tanzimat Period is considered to have ended with the accession of [[Abdul Hamid II]] during the [[Great Eastern Crisis]] (1875–1878).{{sfn|Cleveland|Bunton|2012|p=82}} However, it can also be said that reform efforts continued into the [[Hamidian era|Hamidian]], [[Second Constitutional Era|Second Constitutional]], and [[Committee of Union and Progress|Unionist]] eras until the end of the Ottoman Empire in [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate|1922]].
==Origins==
The reforms emerged from the minds of reformist sultans like [[Mahmud II]] ({{Reign|1808|1839}}), his son [[Abdulmejid I]] ({{Reign|1839|1861}}) and prominent, often European-educated bureaucrats, who recognised that the old religious and military institutions no longer met the needs of the empire. Most of the symbolic changes, such as uniforms, were aimed at changing the mindset of imperial administrators. Many of the officials affiliated with the government were encouraged to wear a more western style of dress. Many of the reforms were attempts to adopt successful European practices. The reforms were heavily influenced by the [[Napoleonic Code]] and [[Law of France|French law]] under the [[Second French Empire]] as a direct result of the increasing number of Ottoman students being educated in France. Changes included the conscription reforms; educational, institutional and legal reforms; and systematic attempts at eliminating political corruption.
Also, a policy called [[Ottomanism]] was meant to unite all the different peoples living in Ottoman territories, "Muslim and non-Muslim, Turkish and Greek, Armenian and Jewish, Kurd and Arab". The policy officially began with the [[Edict of Gülhane]] of 1839, declaring equality before the law for both Muslim and non-Muslim Ottomans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deringil |first=Selim |title=The Invention of Tradition as Public Image in the Late Ottoman Empire, 1808 to 1908 |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |date=1993 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=3–29|doi=10.1017/S0010417500018247 |s2cid=145056061 }} (Jan. 1993), pp. 3–29</ref>
{{Gallery
|title=Examples of dress reform
|width=100
|state=|height=150
|align=center
|footer=|File:Mehmet cemil.jpg|Diplomat [[Mehmed Cemil Bey]] wearing a [[frock coat]] and a [[bow tie]].
|File:Necip pasha.jpg|Necip Ahmed Pasha, career officer and composer in French-inspired uniform.
|File:Selanik mebusu Rahmi Bey.jpg|Governor [[Rahmi Arslan|Rahmi Bey]]
|File:Mehmed fuad young.jpg|Mehmed Galip Bey Efendi
|File:Gülistu Kadınefendi (2).jpg|[[Gülüstü Hanım]]
|File:Sayeste Hanim (2).jpg|[[Şayeste Hanım]]
}}
==Motives==
[[File:Cenap sahabettin.jpg|thumb|[[Cenâb Şehâbeddîn|Cenab Şehabeddin]] was known for his liberal ideals and poetry influenced by [[Symbolism (arts)|French Symbolism]].]]
The ambitious project was launched to combat the slow decline of the empire that had seen its borders shrink and its strength wane in comparison to the European powers. There were both internal and external reasons for the reforms.
The primary purpose of the Tanzimat was to reform the military by modernizing and taking inspiration from European armies. The traditional Ottoman army, the [[Janissaries]], had fallen from grace in terms of military prestige and a European-inspired reconstruction was a necessary change to be made.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kawtharani|first=Wajih|date=April 2018|title=The Ottoman Tanzimat and the Constitution|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.31430/almuntaqa.1.1.0051|journal=AlMuntaqa|volume=1|issue=1|pages=51–65|doi=10.31430/almuntaqa.1.1.0051|jstor=10.31430/almuntaqa.1.1.0051}}</ref> The Ottoman Empire consisted of a multitude of different cultures and the secondary priorities of the Tanzimat reforms were aimed at balancing the social structure that previously favoured Muslim subjects. Another vital section of these reforms was the abolition of ''[[Iltizam|İltizam]],'' or land-tenure agreements.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ayteki̇n|first=Atti̇la|date=August 2012|title=Peasant Protest in the Late Ottoman Empire: Moral Economy, Revolt, and the Tanzimat Reforms|url=https://shibbolethsp.jstor.org/start?entityID=https%3A%2F%2Fwebso.iup.edu%2Fidp%2Fshibboleth&dest=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26394516&site=jstor|journal=International Review of Social History|volume=57|issue=2|pages=191–257|doi=10.1017/S0020859012000193|s2cid=145729675|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Internally, the Ottoman Empire hoped that abolishing the [[millet system]] would create a more centralized government, as well as increased legitimacy of the Ottoman rule, thus gaining direct control of its citizens. Another major hope was that being more open to various demographics would attract more people into the empire. There was fear of internal strife between Muslims and non-Muslims, and allowing more religious freedom to all was supposed to diminish this threat. Giving more rights to the Christians within the empire was considered likely to reduce the danger of outside intervention on their behalf.
Although the motives for the implementation of Tanzimât were bureaucratic, [[Liberalism in Turkey|liberal]] ministers and intellectuals contributed to reform like [[Dimitrios Zambakos Pasha]], [[Kabuli Mehmed Pasha]], the secret society of the [[Young Ottomans]],<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lindgren |first1=Allana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YFvLCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA440 |title=The Modernist World |last2=Ross |first2=Stephen |date=2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-69616-2 |access-date=6 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Yapp |first=Malcolm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1IkcBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 |title=The Making of the Modern Near East 1792–1923 |date=9 January 2014 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-87107-1 |pages=119 |author-link=Malcolm Yapp |access-date=6 May 2017}}</ref> and [[Midhat Pasha]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hanioğlu |first=M. Şükrü |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fU7azFR3AqcC&pg=PA30 |title=The Young Turks in Opposition |date=1995 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-535802-5 |access-date=6 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-iDgNPVuhAC&pg=PA260 |title=The Syrian Land: Processes of Integration and Fragmentation : Bilād Al-Shām from the 18th to the 20th Century |date=1998 |publisher=Franz Steiner |isbn=978-3-515-07309-7 |page=260 |access-date=6 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="Hershlagp36-37">{{Cite book |last=Zvi Yehuda Hershlag |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=awoVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA36 |title=Introduction to the Modern Economic History of the Middle East |publisher=Brill Archive |year=1980 |isbn=978-90-04-06061-6 |pages=36–37 |access-date=9 June 2013}}</ref><ref name="Finkel2012">{{Cite book |last=Caroline Finkel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hslOx5bvOzkC&pg=PA6 |title=Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300-1923 |date=19 July 2012 |publisher=John Murray |isbn=978-1-84854-785-8 |pages=6–7 |access-date=11 June 2013}}</ref> During the [[Great Eastern Crisis]], government ministers lead by [[Midhat Pasha]] conspired to overthrow Sultan [[Abdulaziz|Abdul Aziz]] in a [[1876 Ottoman coup d'état|coup]] and introduce a [[Constitution of the Ottoman Empire|constitution]]. This began the [[First Constitutional Era]], which many historians agree represents the end of the Tanzimat,<ref name="Somelp188">{{Cite book |last=Selçuk Akşin Somel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tBoyoNNKh78C&pg=PA188 |title=The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8108-7579-1 |page=188 |access-date=9 June 2013}}</ref> even though reform continued uninterrupted at its end in 1878, and then into the [[Abdul Hamid II|Hamidian Era]].
==Reforms==
{{Taxation in the Ottoman Empire sidebar}}
[[File:Mizanci murat.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Prominent statesman [[Mizancı Murat|Mizancı Murat Bey]] was renowned for his work on reviving the concept of [[Ottomanism]] during the [[Second Constitutional Era]].]]
[[File:Sultanzade Sabahaddin.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|right|Prince [[Sultanzade Sabahaddin|Sabahaddin]] proclaimed the [[Freedom and Accord Party|Liberal Party]] of the Ottoman Empire during the Second Constitutional Era.]]
On November 3, 1839, Sultan [[Abdulmejid I]] issued a [[hatt-i humayun|hatt-i sharif]], or imperial edict, called the [[Edict of Gülhane]]. The edict gave guarantees to ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives, honour, and property. This was followed by several statutes enacting its policies.
In the edict the Sultan stated that he wished "to bring the benefits of a good administration to the provinces of the Ottoman Empire through new institutions". Among the reforms thereafter included were the following:<ref name="NTVtarih">{{Cite magazine |last=Padişahı |first=İlklerin |date=July 2011 |title=Sultan Abdülmecid |url=http://www.ntvtarih.com.tr/ |magazine=NTV Tarih |language=tr |pages=46–55 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212143841/http://www.ntvtarih.com.tr/ |archive-date=2013-02-12}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Strohm |first=Frederic |title=Istanbul im 19. Jahrhundert. Die Modernisierungsbestrebungen in der osmanischen Hauptstadt – lokale Faktoren und globale Einflüsse |trans-title=Istanbul in the 19th century. Modernization efforts in the Ottoman capital: local factors and global influence |language=de |year=2016 |pages=34–}}</ref>
* Establishment of the [[Ministry of Trade and Agriculture (Ottoman Empire)|Ministry of Trade and Agriculture]] (1839)
* Introduction of the first Ottoman paper [[banknotes]] (1840)
* Establishment of the [[Ministry of Post and Telegraph (Ottoman Empire)|Ministry of Post]] and the first [[Postage stamps and postal history of Turkey|post offices of the empire]] (1840)<ref name="PTT">{{Cite web |date=13 September 2008 |title=PTT Chronology |url=http://www.ptt.gov.tr/tr/kurumsal/tarihce.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913233443/http://www.ptt.gov.tr/tr/kurumsal/tarihce.html |archive-date=13 September 2008 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=PTT Genel Müdürlüğü |language=tr}}</ref><ref name="PTT2">{{Cite web |title=History of the Turkish Postal Service |url=http://www.ptt.gov.tr/index.snet?wapp=histor_en&open=1 |access-date=6 November 2011 |publisher=Ptt.gov.tr}}</ref>
* Reorganization of the finance system (1840)
* Reorganization of the [[Civil Code of Turkey|Civil]] and [[Penal Code of Turkey|Penal Code]] (1840)
* Establishment of the Council of Education ({{lang|ota-Latn|Meclis-i Maarif-i Umumiye}}) (1841){{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
* Reorganization of the army and a regular method of recruiting, levying the army, and fixing the duration of military service (1843–44)
* Redesign of [[Ottoman imperial anthem|Ottoman national anthem]] and [[Ottoman flag|Ottoman national flag]] (1844)
* First nationwide [[1844 Ottoman Census|Ottoman census in 1844]] (only male citizens were counted){{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
* First national identity cards (officially named the {{lang|ota-Latn|Mecidiye}} identity papers, or informally {{lang|ota-Latn|kafa kağıdı}} (''head paper'') documents, 1844){{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
* Institution of a Council of Public Instruction (1845) and the Ministry of Education (''Mekatib-i Umumiye Nezareti'', 1847, which later became the [[:tr:Maârif-i Umûmiye Nezâreti|''Maarif Nezareti'']], 1857)
* Establishment of the [[Chaldean Catholics|Chaldean Catholic]] Millet (1846)
* [[Disestablishment of the Istanbul Slave Market]] (1847)<ref>The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. (2023). Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. p536</ref>
* [[Suppression of the slave trade in the Persian Gulf]] (1847)<ref>The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. (2023). Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. p536</ref>
* Establishment of the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Millet (1847)
* Establishment of the first telegraph networks (1847–1855) and [[History of rail transport in Turkey|railway networks]] (1856)
* Establishment of the first modern universities ({{lang|ota-Latn|darülfünun}}, 1848), academies (1848) and teacher schools ({{lang|ota-Latn|italic=no|darülmuallimin}}, 1848)
* Establishment of the [[Ministry of Healthcare (Ottoman Empire)|Ministry of Healthcare]] ({{lang|ota-Latn|Tıbbiye Nezareti}}, 1850)
* Promulgation of the [[Commerce Code of Turkey|Commerce]] and [[Trade Code of Turkey|Trade Code]] (1850)
* Establishment of the Academy of Sciences ([[:tr:Encümen-i Daniş|''Encümen-i Daniş'']]) (1851)
* Establishment of the {{lang|ota-Latn|{{ill|Şirket-i Hayriye|tr}}}} which operated the first steam-powered commuter ferries (1851)
* Reorganization of the Penal Code (1851){{Sfn|Davison|1963|p=98}}
* [[Firman of 1854|Prohibition of the Circassian and Georgian slave trade]] (1854–1855)<ref>The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. (2023). Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. p536</ref>
* Legislative functions of the {{Interlanguage link|Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances|tr|Meclis-i Vâlâ-yı Ahkâm-ı Adliyye}} (''Meclis-i Vâlâ-yı Ahkâm-ı Adliye'') passed to the Council of Reorganization (''Meclis-i Âli-i Tanzimat'') (1854)
* Establishment of the modern [[:tr:İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi|Municipality of Constantinople]] ({{lang|ota-Latn|Şehremaneti}}, 1854) and the City Planning Council ({{lang|ota-Latn|İntizam-ı Şehir Komisyonu}}, 1855)
* The [[Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856|Imperial Reform Edict of 1856]] promising full legal equality for citizens of all religions (1856)
* Establishment of the [[Ottoman Bank]] (originally established as the {{lang|ota-Latn|Bank-ı Osmanî}} in 1856, and later reorganized as the {{lang|ota-Latn|Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane}} in 1863)<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the Ottoman Bank |url=http://www.obarsiv.com/ob-tarih.html |website=obarsiv.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614105241/http://www.obarsiv.com/ob-tarih.html |archive-date=2012-06-14}}</ref> and the [[Ottoman Stock Exchange]] ({{lang|ota-Latn|Dersaadet Tahvilat Borsası}}, established in 1866)<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of the Istanbul Stock Exchange |url=http://www.imkb.gov.tr/genel/tarih.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225094722/http://www.imkb.gov.tr/genel/tarih.htm |archive-date=2012-02-25}}</ref>
* [[Firman of 1857|Prohibition of the Black Slave Trade]] (1857)<ref>The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. (2023). Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. p536</ref>
* Codification and promulgation of the [[Ottoman Land Code of 1858|Land Code]] (1858)
* Permission for private sector publishers and printing firms with the {{lang|ota-Latn|Serbesti-i Kürşad Nizamnamesi}} (1857)
* Promulgation of a western-inspired [[Penal Code of Turkey|Penal Code]], replacing 1851 codex, which endured until 1928 (1858){{Sfn|Davison|1963|p=98}}
* Establishment of the School of Civil Service, an institution of higher learning for civilians under the [[Ministry of the Interior (Ottoman Empire)|Ministry of Internal Affairs]], and the School of Economical and Political Sciences ([[Faculty of Political Science, Ankara University|''Mekteb-i Mülkiye-i Şahane'']]) (1859){{sfn|Cleveland|Bunton|2012|p=84}}
* Internal security duties of the office of [[List of Ottoman grand viziers|Grand Vizier]] passed to a new [[Ministry of the Interior (Ottoman Empire)|Ministry of the Interior]] (1860)
* Establishment of the [[Bulgarian Uniat Church|Bulgarian Catholic Millet]] (1860)
* Promulgation of a French inspired Mixed Commercial Code (1861){{Sfn|Davison|1963|p=99}}
* Merging of the Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances and Council of Reorganization (1861)
* Establishment of the [[Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate]] (1861)
* Promulgation of [[basic law]]s for the [[Greeks in the Ottoman Empire|Greek Millet]] (1862)
* Promulgation of a French inspired Maritime Commerce Code (1863){{Sfn|Davison|1963|p=99}}
* Promulgation of a [[Armenian National Constitution|Constitution for the Armenian Millet]] and the [[Armenian National Assembly]] (1863)
* Promulgation of a [[Censorship in Turkey|Press and Journalism Regulation Code]] ({{lang|ota-Latn|Matbuat Nizamnamesi}}) (1864)<ref name=NTVtarih/>
* Reorganization of provincial administration with the [[Vilayet Law]] (1864)
* Establishment of secular [[Ottoman Nizamiye Courts|Nizamiye courts]] (1864)
* Promulgation of a Constitution for the [[History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|Jewish Millet]] and a Jewish National Assembly (1865)
* Governance over [[Tariqa|Sufi Orders]] handed to the [[ulema]] with the establishment of the [[:tr:Meclis-i_Meşâyih|Assembly of Shaykhs]] (''Meclis-i Meşayıh'') under the [[Şeyhülislam]], (1866)
* Reorganization of [[waqf]], or Islamic mortmain property (1867)
* Regulation of foreigners on owning Ottoman property, effectively weakening [[Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire|capitulation]] treaties (1867)
* Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances (''Meclis-i Vâlâ-yı Ahkâm-ı Adliye'') split into a [[Council of State (Ottoman Empire)|Council of State]] and a {{Interlanguage link|Judicial Council (Ottoman Empire)|lt=Judicial Council|tr|Dîvân-ı Ahkâm-ı Adliyye}} (''Divan-ı Ahkâmı Adliye''), the latter of which acted as a supreme court of appeal and cassation (1868)
* Establishment of [[Galatasaray High School]] ([[Galatasaray High School#Modern period (1868–1923)|Imperial Ottoman Lycée at Galatasaray]]), another institution of higher learning for civilians (1868);{{sfn|Cleveland|Bunton|2012|p=84}}
* Nationality Law creating a common Ottoman citizenship irrespective of religious divisions, another attack on [[Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire|capitulations]] (1869)
* Establishment of the [[Ottoman Gendarmerie]] (1869)
* Publication of a [[Hanafi school|Hanefite]]-[[Sharia]] civil code: the ''[[Mecelle]]'' which endured until 1926 in Turkey and beyond in other post-Ottoman states (1869–1876)
* Reorganization of the judiciary of the Muslim millet (1869)
* Establishment of the [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] and the [[Bulgarian Millet|Bulgarian millet]] (1872)
* Establishment of the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox]] Millet (1873)
* Promulgation of an [[Ottoman Constitution]], [[Ottoman Senate|Senate]], and [[Chamber of Deputies (Ottoman Empire)|Chamber of Deputies]] (1876)
===Edict of {{lang|ota-Latn|italic=no|Gülhane}} of 1839===
{{main|Edict of Gülhane}}
[[File:Mustafa reshid pasha.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mustafa Reşid Pasha]], the principal architect of the [[Edict of Gülhane|Edict of {{lang|ota-Latn|italic=no|cat=no|Gülhane}}]]]]
The [[Edict of Gülhane|''Hatt-ı Şerif'' of Gülhane]], was the first major reform in the Tanzimat reforms under the government of sultan Abdulmejid and a crucial event in the movement towards secularization. The decree, named after the rosehouse ({{lang|ota-Latn|[[Gülhane Park|gülhane]]}}) on the grounds of the [[Topkapi Palace]], abolished [[tax farming]]. It also created a bureaucratic system of taxation with salaried tax collectors. This reflects the centralizing effects of the Tanzimat reforms. Additionally, the Edict of {{lang|ota-Latn|italic=no|Gülhane}} imposed forced military conscription within the administrative districts based on their population size.
However, the most significant clause of the {{lang|ota-Latn|italic=no|Gülhane}} decree was the one enforcing the rule of law for all subjects, including non-Muslims, by guaranteeing the right to life and property for all. This put an end to the {{lang|ota-Latn|kul}} system, which allowed the ruler's servants to be executed or have their property confiscated at his desire. These reforms sought to establish legal and social equality for all Ottoman citizens. The reforms eliminated the ''millet'' system in the Ottoman Empire. The millet system created religiously based communities that operated autonomously, so people were organized into societies, some of them often receiving privileges. This clause terminated the privileges of these communities and constructed a society where all followed the same law.
The new reforms called for an almost complete reconstruction of public life in the Ottoman Empire. Under the reconstruction, a system of state schools was established to produce government clerics. Ottomans were encouraged to enroll. Each province was organized so that each governor would have an advisory council and specified duties in order to better serve the territory. The new reforms also called for a modern financial system with a [[central bank]], [[Government bond|treasury bonds]] and a [[Decimalisation#Decimal currency|decimal currency]]. Finally, the reforms implemented the expansion of roads, canals and rail lines for better communication and transportation.
====Reactions====
The reaction to the edict was not entirely positive. Christians in the Balkans refused to support the reforms because they wanted an autonomy that became more difficult to achieve under centralized power. In fact, its adoption spurred some provinces to seek independence by rebelling. It took strong British backing in maintaining Ottoman territory to ensure that the reforms were instated.
===Edict of 1856 and religious freedom===
{{main|Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856}}
[[File:Mehmed ali.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|right|[[Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha]], the principal architect of the [[Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856|Imperial Reform Edict of 1856]].]]
The [[Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856|Reform Edict]] of 1856 was intended to carry out the promises of the Tanzimat. The Edict is very specific about the status of non-Muslims, making it possible "to see it as the outcome of a period of religious restlessness that followed the Edict of 1839". Officially, part of the Tanzimat's goal was to make the state intolerant to forced conversion to Islam, also making the execution of [[apostates from Islam]] illegal. Despite the official position of the state in the midst of the Tanzimat reforms, this tolerance of non-Muslims seems to have been seriously curtailed, at least until the Reform Edict of 1856. The Ottoman Empire had tried many different ways to reach out to non-Muslims. First it tried to reach out to them by giving all non-Muslims an option to apply for [[Dhimmi]] status. Having Dhimmi status gave non-Muslims the ability to live in the Ottoman Empire and own property, but this ability was not without special taxes (''[[jizya]]'').
For the "Ottoman ruling elite, 'freedom of religion' meant 'freedom to defend their religion{{'"}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Deringil |first=Selim |date=July 2003 |title=There Is No Compulsion in Religion': On Conversion and Apostasy in the Late Ottoman Empire: 1839–1856 |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=547–575|doi=10.1017/S0010417500002930 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |s2cid=146795365 }}</ref>
==Impacts==
[[File:Greek lithograph celebrating the Ottoman Constitution.png|thumb|235px|The [[Ottoman constitution of 1876|1876 Constitution]]: Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]], the [[Grand Vizier]], and the [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets]] grant freedom to an idealized female figure representing Turkey, whose chains are being smashed. The flying angel displays a banner with the motto of the [[French Revolution]]: [[Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité|Liberty, Equality, Fraternity]] in [[Turkish language|Turkish]] (Arabic script) and in [[Greek language|Greek]]. The scene takes place in a generic [[Bosphorus]] scenery. Reproduced from a 1908 postcard (the printed caption of 1895 is inaccurate) celebrating the re-introduction of the constitution thanks to the [[Young Turk Revolution]] of 1908.]]
Although the Edict of Gülhane and the Tanzimat provided strong guidelines for society, they were not a constitution and did not replace the authority of the sultan.
Still, the Tanzimat reforms had far-reaching effects overall. Those educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat period included major personalities of the [[nation state]]s that would develop from the Ottoman Empire. The system was ultimately undone by negotiations with the Great Powers following the [[Crimean War]]. As part of the Charter of 1856, European powers demanded a much stronger sovereignty for ethnic communities within the empire, differing from the Ottomans, who envisioned equality meaning identical treatment under the law for all citizens. That served to strengthen the Christian middle class, increasing their economic and political power.{{Citation needed|date=February 2019}}
The reforms peaked in 1876 with the implementation of an Ottoman constitution checking the autocratic powers of the Sultan.  The details of this period are covered under the [[First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|First Constitutional Era]]. Although the new Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]] signed the first constitution, he quickly turned against it.
Historian [[Hans-Lukas Kieser]] has argued that the reforms led to "the rhetorical promotion of equality of non-Muslims with Muslims on paper vs. the primacy of Muslims in practice" (see Tanzimat [[Dualism (politics)|Dualism]]); other historians have argued that the decreased ability of non-Muslims to assert their legal rights during this period led to the land seizure and emigration.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Maksudyan |first1=Nazan |date=2019 |title=review of This Is a Man's World?: On Fathers and Architects: Talaat Pasha father of modern Turkey, architect of genocide, by Hans-Lukas Kieser, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2018 |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=540–544 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2019.1613816 |s2cid=181910618}}</ref> Part of the reform policy was an economic policy based on the [[Treaty of Balta Liman]] of 1838. Many changes were made to improve civil liberties, but many Muslims saw them as a foreign influence on the world of Islam. That perception complicated reformist efforts made by the state.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roderic |first=H. Davison |title=Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774–1923 – The Impact of the West |publisher=[[University of Texas Press]] |year=1990 |pages=115–116}}</ref> During the Tanzimat period, the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern [[Ottoman Army (1861–1922)|conscripted army]], banking system reforms, the replacement of religious law with secular law<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ishtiaq |first=Hussain |title=The Tanzimat: Secular reforms in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf |publisher=Faith Matters}}</ref> and [[guild]]s with modern factories.
Some scholars argue that from the Muslim population's traditional Islamic view, the Tanzimat's fundamental change regarding the non-Muslims, from a status of a subjugated population ([[dhimmi]]) to that of equal subjects, was in part responsible for the [[Hamidian massacres]] and subsequent [[Armenian genocide]]. In their view, these were inevitable backlashes from the Muslim community to the legal changes, as the Tanzimat's values were imposed from above and did not reflect those of society.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Movsesian |first=Mark |date=2010-05-05 |title=Elusive Equality: The Armenian Genocide and the Failure of Ottoman Legal Reform |language=en |location=Rochester, NY|ssrn=1600745 }}</ref>
===Effects in different provinces===
In [[Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate|Lebanon]], the Tanzimat reforms were intended to return to the tradition of equality for all subjects before the law.  However, the [[Sublime Porte]] assumed that the underlying hierarchical social order would remain unchanged. Instead, the upheavals of reform would allow for different understandings of the goals of the Tanzimat. The elites in [[Mount Lebanon]], in fact, interpreted the Tanzimat far differently from one another, leading to [[1860 Druze–Maronite conflict|ethno-religious uprisings among newly emancipated Maronites]]. As a result, "European and Ottoman officials engaged in a contest to win the loyalty of the local inhabitants — the French by claiming to protect the [[Maronites]]; the British, the [[Druze]]; and the Ottomans by proclaiming the sultan's benevolence toward all his religiously equal subjects."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Makdisi |first=Ussama |date=2000 |title=Corrupting the Sublime Sultanate: The Revolt of Tanyus Shahin in Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Lebanon |journal=Comparative Studies in Society and History |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=180–208|doi=10.1017/S0010417500002644 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |s2cid=143901523 }}</ref>
In [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], land reforms, especially the change in land ownership structure via the [[Ottoman Land Law of 1858]], allowed [[Russian Jews|Russian]] and [[Yemenite Jews|Yemeni Jews]] to buy land, thus enabling them to immigrate there under the [[first Aliya]]. In order to boost its tax base, the Ottoman state required Arabs in Palestine, as elsewhere, to register their lands for the first time. As a rule the [[fellahin]] didn't trust the ailing regime, fearing that registration would only lead to higher taxation and [[Conscription in the Ottoman Empire|conscription]]. Prevailing illiteracy among the fellahin meant in the end that many local [[mukhtar]]s were able to collectively register village lands under their own name. Thus, they were able to later claim ownership and to sell the local peasants' lands out from under their feet to the new Jewish immigrants, as they themselves relocated permanently to Syria or Turkey.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shafir |first=Gershon |title=Land, Labor and the Origins of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict 1882–1914 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge}}</ref> Alternately, rich Christian or Muslim families, the class of the '[[Effendi]]s', were able to accumulate large amounts of land which they exploited by themselves or sold on.
In 1863 the [[Armenian National Constitution]] was approved by the Ottoman government. The "Code of Regulations" consisted of 150 articles drafted by the Armenian intelligentsia and defined the powers of the [[Catholicos of All Armenians|Armenian Patriarch]] under the Ottoman [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet system]] and the newly formed [[Armenian National Assembly (Ottoman Empire)|Armenian National Assembly]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times |editor-last=Hovannisian |editor-first=Richard G. |pages=198}}</ref>
===Political consequences===
{{Expand section|date=September 2024}}
Despite progressive intentions, the policy of reform in the form of Tanzimat ultimately failed. The historical circumstances of the reforms, the reasons for this failure and the consequences of the reforms are of interest for historical analysis and are considered by historians all over the world. [[Zeynep Çelik (scholar)|Zeynep Çelik]] wrote: "In summary, from 1838 to 1908 the Ottoman Empire staged its final but doomed struggle for survival."{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}
== Gallery ==
{{Gallery
|title=
|width=150
|height=150
|align=center
|File:SPRY(1895) p733 - THE OTTOMAN PARLIAMENT, 1877.jpg|Meeting of the Parliament, 1877.
|File:Ottoman Parliament Dec1908.jpg|Meeting of the Parliament, 1908.
|File:Ottoman parliament building.jpg|Building of the Ottoman Parliament.
|File:Ottoman Bank.jpg|The Imperial [[Ottoman Bank]] headquarters, 1896.
|File:Naum Tiyatrosu.jpg|[[Naum Theatre]] in Constantinople.
|File:Samsun Tütün Fabrikası içi.jpg|Tobacco factory in [[Samsun]], 1910.
|File:Bomonti Beer Factory-Istanbul.jpg|[[Bomonti]] brewery of Constantinople.
|File:Beyazıt, İstanbul (12967786513).jpg|[[Beyazıt Square]], 1880s.
|File:Marmara University’s Haydarpaşa Campus, İstanbul (14264063653).jpg|[[Marmara University]], 1880s.
|File:Budapest török vendégei. Mo. és a Nagyvilág, 1877.jpg|Turkish delegates to [[Budapest]]}}
==See also==
* [[Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire]]
* [[Ottoman military reforms]]
* [[Young Ottomans]]
* [[Court uniform and dress in the Ottoman Empire]]
* [[Düstur|''Düstür'']]
* [[Ahmed Cevdet Pasha]]
== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Cited sources==
* {{Cite book |last1=Cleveland |first1=William L. |title=A history of the modern Middle East |last2=Bunton |first2=Martin P. |date=4 December 2012 |isbn=978-0-8133-4833-9 |edition=Fifth |location=Boulder, CO |oclc=813691473}}
* {{Citation |last=Davison |first=Roderic |title=Reform in the Ottoman Empire: 1856–1876 |year=1963 |place=Princeton, New Jersey |publisher=Princeton University Press}}
==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |last=Lafi |first=Nora |title=The Ottoman Municipal Reforms between Old Regime and Modernity: Towards a New Interpretative Paradigm |oclc=695237486 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lafi |first=Nora |title=Une ville du Maghreb entre ancien régime et réformes ottomanes : genèse des institutions municipales à Tripoli de Barbarie, 1795–1911 |date=2002 |publisher=L'Harmattan |isbn=978-2-7475-2616-6 |location=Paris |oclc=52813928 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lafi |first=Nora |title=Municipalités méditerranéennes. Les réformes urbaines ottomanes au miroir d'une histoire comparée |oclc=695236822 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Finkel |first1=Evgeny|author-link=Evgeny Finkel  |title=Reform and Rebellion in Weak States |last2=Gehlbach |first2=Scott |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-85511-2 |edition=1 |doi=10.1017/9781108855112 |s2cid=219497050|ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gelvin |first=James L. |title=The Modern Middle East: A History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-532759-5 |edition=Second |ref=none |author-link=James L. Gelvin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Indzhov |first=Emil |title=The Bulgarians and the Administrative Reforms in the Ottoman Empire in 50-60 Years at the XIX Century |work=Proceedings of the [[University of Ruse]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-8133-4833-9 |volume=56 |ref=none |issue=6.2 |publisher=Avalon |language=bg}}
* {{Cite book |last=Creasy |first=Edward Shepherd |title=History of the Ottoman Turks : from the beginning of their empire to the present time |date=2011 |publisher=British Library, Historic |isbn=978-1-241-43206-5 |oclc=942693443 |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Costanza |first=Maurizio |title=Le mezzaluna sul filo : la riforma ottomana di Mahmûd II (1808–1839) : politica, società, arte e cultura di un grande impero euro-asiatico all'alba della modernità e del confronto con l'Occidente |date=2010 |publisher=Marcianum Press |isbn=978-88-6512-032-3 |location=Venezia |oclc=722436035 |ref=none}}
{{Turkey topics}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Tanzimat| ]]
[[Category:Politics of the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:History of social movements]]
[[Category:1839 in the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:1856 in the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:19th century in the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Mahmud II]]
[[Category:Abdulmejid I]]