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{{about|historical Chinese tribes|the Persian surname|Al-Tusi|the street drug|Tusi (drug)}}
{{short description|Indigenous chieftain regimes of China during Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties}}
{{italic title}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|pic=木府议事厅.JPG
|piccap=[[Chiefdom of Lijiang]]'s Palace Chamber
|c=土司
|p=Tǔsī
|showflag=p
|w=t'u<sup>3</sup>-szu<sup>1</sup>
|qn=Thổ ty
|chuhan=土司
|mnc= {{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᠠᡳᠮᠠᠨ ᡳ <br> ᡥᠠᡶᠠᠨ}}
|mnc_v= aiman i hafan
|tib={{bo-textonly|ཐོའུ་སི}}
|wylie=thovu si |zwpy=
}}
'''''Tusi''''', often translated as "headmen" or "chieftains", were hereditary tribal leaders recognized as imperial officials by the [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]], [[Ming dynasty|Ming]], and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] dynasties of China, and the [[Lê dynasty|Later Lê]] and [[Nguyễn dynasty|Nguyễn]] dynasties of Vietnam. They ruled certain ethnic minorities in central China, western China, southwestern China, and the [[Indochina|Indochinese peninsula]] nominally on behalf of the central government. As succession to the ''Tusi'' position was hereditary, these regimes effectively formed numerous autonomous petty dynasties under the suzerainty of the central court. This arrangement is known as the ''Tusi System'' or the ''Native Chieftain System'' ({{zh|c={{linktext|土司|制度}}|p=Tǔsī Zhìdù}}). It should not be confused with the [[Tributary system of China|Chinese tributary system]] or the [[Jimi system]].
''Tusi'' regimes were located primarily in [[Yunnan]], [[Guizhou]], [[Tibet]], [[Sichuan]], [[Chongqing]], the [[Xiangxi|Xiangxi Prefecture]] of [[Hunan]], and the [[Enshi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture|Enshi Prefecture]] of [[Hubei]]. ''Tusi'' entities were also established in the historical dependencies and frontier regions of China in what is today northern [[Myanmar]],<ref>缅甸土司制度的兴衰(1287—1959年): [http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-TRIB201601012.htm cnki.com.cn]</ref> [[Laos]],<ref>'''''[[Ming Veritable Records]]''''' - 《明实录》 or '''''[[History of Ming]]''''' 《明史·老挝传》</ref> and northern [[Thailand]].<ref>傣族的土司制度与傣族文化: [http://www.mzb.com.cn/html/report/141032408-1.htm mzb.com.cn] or [http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-ZYMD198702005.htm cnki.com.cn]</ref> The Vietnamese Later Lê and Nguyễn dynasties also implemented the ''Tusi'' system.<ref>Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition) Vol.37 No.1 (Jan. 2016) - 《越南阮朝土司制度探析》, see [http://www.docin.com/p-1603516783.html docin.com]</ref>
In 2015, [[UNESCO]] designated three ''Tusi'' castles ([[Laosicheng]], [[Tangya]], and [[Hailongtun]]) as part of the "[[Tusi Sites]]" World Heritage Site in China, owing to the unique system of governance.<ref>{{cite web |title = Tusi Sites |website = UNESCO World Heritage Centre |publisher = United Nations Educationa;, Scientific, and Cultural Organization }}</ref> It has been described on at least one occasion as sharing similarities with the "U.S. federal government's recognition of some [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American tribes]] as in some ways sovereign entities."{{sfn|Dardess|2012|p=3}}
==History==
===Yuan dynasty===
The ''tusi'' system was inspired by the [[Jimi system]] ({{zh|t=羈縻制度}}) implemented in regions of [[Ethnic minorities in China|ethnic minorities groups]] during the [[Tang dynasty]].<ref>中国土司制度 - 云南民族出版社 - 1992年出版 (作者: 龚荫) - {{ISBN|7-5367-0509-3}}: [http://www.nulog.cn/83608.html nulog.cn] or [http://www.sfyey.net/zhidu/1452996.html sfyey.net]</ref> It was established as a specific political term during the [[Yuan dynasty]]<ref>土司制度基本概念辨析 - 《云南师范大学学报：哲学社会科学版》2014年1期（作者：李世愉）: [http://www.mzb.com.cn/html/report/140926697-1.htm mzb.com.cn], [http://www.cssn.cn/zgs/zgs_zms/201406/t20140620_1220531.shtml cssn.cn] or [https://wenku.baidu.com/view/f10728a84afe04a1b071de95.html wenku (baidu)]</ref> and was used as a political institution to administer newly acquired territories following their conquest of the [[Dali Kingdom]] in 1253.{{sfn|Dardess|2012|p=6}}
Members of the former Duan imperial clan of the Dali Kingdom were appointed as governors-general with nominal authority using the title "Dali chief steward" ({{zh|{{linktext|大理|總管}}}}, [[pinyin|p]] ''Dàlǐ Zǒngguǎn''), and local leaders were co-opted under a variety of titles as administrators of the region.<ref name="WindCloud">Bin Yang.<!--sic--> ''[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/yang/chapter4.html Between Winds and Clouds: The Making of Yunnan]'', Ch. 4. Columbia University Press.</ref> Some credit the [[Turkmens|Turkoman]] governor [[Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar]] with introducing the system into China.<ref name="WindCloud"/>  Duan Xingzhi, the last emperor of Dali, was appointed as the first local ruler, and he accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there.<ref>{{cite book |first=C. P. |last=Atwood |title=Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongols |page=613}}</ref> Duan Xingzhi offered the Yuan maps of Yunnan and led a considerable army to serve as guides for the Yuan army. By the end of 1256, [[Yunnan]] was considered to have been pacified.
Under the Yuan dynasty, the native officials, or ''tusi'', were the clients of a patron-client relationship. The patron, the Yuan emperors, exercised jurisdictional control over the client, but not his/her territory itself.{{sfn|Herman|2007|p=11}}
The ''tusi'' chieftains and local tribe leaders and kingdoms in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The [[Han Chinese]] Yang family ruling the [[Chiefdom of Bozhou]] which was recognized by the [[Song dynasty|Song]] and [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] dynasties also received recognition by the subsequent Yuan and Ming dynasties. The Luo clan in [[Mu'ege|Shuixi]] led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from the [[Shu Han]] era king Huoji who helped [[Zhuge Liang]] against [[Meng Huo]]. They were also recognized by the Ming dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Herman |first1=John. E. |editor1-last=Di Cosmo |editor1-first=Nicola |editor2-last=Wyatt |editor2-first=Don J |title=Political Frontiers, Ethnic Boundaries and Human Geographies in Chinese History |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=1135790957 |page=260 |edition=illustrated |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y1mQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA260}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Crossley |editor1-first=Pamela Kyle |editor2-last=Siu |editor2-first=Helen F. |editor3-last=Sutton |editor3-first=Donald S. |title=Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China |date=2006 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0520230159 |page=143 |edition=illustrated |volume=28 of Studies on China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EtNVMUx9qIIC&pg=PA143}}</ref>
===Ming dynasty===
In 1364, [[Hongwu Emperor|Zhu Yuanzhang]] conquered [[Huguang]]. Rather than building a bureaucratic system of his own in Huguang, Zhu chose to keep the native chieftaincy system implemented by the Yuan dynasty. He reappointed many ''tusi'' to the same posts as they had during the Yuan dynasty. After reunifying China under the Ming dynasty and becoming the Hongwu Emperor, he brought this practice to the entire southern border zone of the empire.<ref>Shin,Leo Kwok-yueh,''The making of the Chinese state: ethnicity and expansion on the Ming borderlands.'' (New York: Cambridge University Press,2006), ''p. 58.''</ref>
In 1381, Hongwu sent a force against the last remnant of the forces of the Yuan dynasty, led by the [[Liang (realm)|Prince of Liang]] [[Basalawarmi#Defeat and death|Basalawarmi]], who  committed suicide. This left Duan Gong, a successor of Duan Xingzhi, as the last representative of the remaining Yuan forces. He refused to surrender and attempted to have the former realm of the Dali Kingdom recognized as a tributary state. When he was defeated in battle, the surviving Duan brothers were taken captive and escorted to the capital. There they were given an insignificant office in the interior. From then on, "permanent chieftains were replaced by transferable officials," formally appointed by the Ming court.<ref name="JSS_077_1c_DuYutingChenLufan">{{cite journal
| last1 =  Du Yuting
| last2 = Chen Lufan
|year= 1989
|title=  Did Kublai Khan's Conquest of the Dali Kingdom Give Rise to the Mass Migration of the Thai People to the South?
|journal= [[Journal of the Siam Society]]
|format= free
|volume= JSS Vol. 77.1c
|issue= digital |at=images 2–4
|publisher= Siam Heritage Trust
|url= http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1981/JSS_077_1c_DuYutingChenLufan_KublaiKhanConquestAndThaiMigration.pdf
|access-date= March 17, 2013
}}</ref>
Local leaders were obliged to provide troops, suppress local rebellions, and pay tribute to [[Beijing]] annually, biennially, or triennially according to their distance. The post was hereditary as opposed to the [[Imperial examination|examination system]] in [[China proper]], but succession, promotion, and demotion were all controlled by the Ming administration which required each ''tusi'' to use a seal and an official charter.<ref>Wellens, Koen. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=7JDZZ8gRbPYC Religious Revival in the Tibetan Borderlands: The Premi of Southwest China]'', pp. 29 ff. ''Studies on Ethnic Groups in China''. University of Washington Press, 2010. {{ISBN|0-295-99069-4}}.</ref> To establish legitimate successions, ''tusi'' were ordered to list their sons and nephews in AD 1436, to redo the list in quadruplicate in 1441, and to renew the list triennially in 1441 and again in 1485. The Ming dynasty also took over regencies of children younger than 15 in 1489.<ref name="WindCloud"/>
''Tusi'' chiefs could sometimes be female according to local customs and had full authority over their own tribesmen, but were kept under supervision by the Ming [[Ministry of Personnel]] or the [[Ministry of War (imperial China)|Ministry of War]]. Areas of ''tusi'' administration tended to explode into violence or turmoil intermittently and would invariably provoke Ming military intervention. However, these incidents are generally attributed to provocations by Chinese settlers or corrupt officials and not the fault of the tribes themselves.{{sfn|Dardess|2012|p=6}}
The native chieftain system was a mutual-beneficial cooperation between the central government and native chieftains. For a quite long time after the foundation of Ming, the rulers knew that the central government could only use limited amount of resources. Having a large number of armies stationed in southern borderland, an area with harsh natural environment and large number of Non-Han people, was too costly for Ming rulers. Thus, they decided to transfer part of ruling power to those local political rulers in exchange for their defense of the border zone.<ref>Shin, ''The making of the Chinese state,'' p. 57.   </ref>
==== Civil and military tusis====
The Ming ''tusi'' were categorized into civil and military ranks.<ref name=":0">Pamela Kyle Crossley, Helen F. Siu, Donald S.Sutton (2006). ''Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China''. (Berkeley: University of California Press,2006), pp. 136.</ref> The civilian tusi were given the titles of ''Tu Zhifu'' ("native prefecture"), ''Tu Zhizhou'' ("native department") and ''Tu Zhixian'' ("native county") according to the size and population of their domains. Nominally, they had the same rank as their counterparts in the regular administration system<ref name=":0" /> The central government gave more autonomy to those military tusi who controlled areas with fewer Han Chinese people and had underdeveloped infrastructure. They pledged loyalty to the Ming emperor but had almost unfettered power within their domains.  
All the native chieftains were nominally subordinate to Pacification Commissioners (''Xuanfushi'', ''Xuanweishi'', ''Anfushi''). The Pacification Commissioners were also native chieftains who received their title from the Ming court. As a way of checking their power, Pacification Commissioners were put under the supervision of the Ministry of War.<ref>Shin, ''The making of the Chinese state,'' p. 61.   </ref>
Throughout its 276 year history, the Ming dynasty bestowed a total of 1608 ''tusi'' titles, 960 of which were military-rank and 648 were civilian-rank,<ref>Crossley, ''Empire at the Margins,'' p. 137.   </ref> the majority of which were in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan. In Tibet, Qinghai and Sichuan, the Ming court sometimes gave both ''tusi'' titles and religious titles to leaders. As a result, those ''tusi'' had double identities. They played both the role of political leaders and religious leaders within their domains. For example, during the reign of the [[Yongle Emperor]], the leader of the Jinchuan monastery assisted the Ming army in a battle against the Mongols. The leader was later given the title ''Yanhua Chanshi'' ({{lang|zh|演化禅师}}), or "Evolved Chan Master", and the power to rule 15 villages as his domain as a reward.<ref name=":1">邹, 立波 (2010). "从土司封号看嘉绒藏族土司与宗教的关系". ''西南民族大学学报(人文社科版)''. '''31''' (02): 11–15, p. 11.</ref>
==== Power and privileges of Tusi ====
After a chieftain was recognized by the central government as a ''tusi'', he would receive a patent of appointment, a bronze official seal, a belt decorated with gold, and a formal attire as uniform.<ref name=":2">Shin, ''The making of the Chinese state,'' p. 62.         </ref> The title of ''tusi'' was hereditary and passed down to an heir.
The entire clan of a ''tusi'' enjoyed privileges within the domain. In Ming China, the clan of a ''tusi'' was called ''Guanzu'' ("official clan").<ref>Jennifer Took, ''A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China: Franchising a Tai Chieftaincy Under the Tusi System of Late Imperial China.'' (Danvers: BRILL,2005). p. 93.</ref> Members of the official clan had higher social ranks than commoners and slaves. Only members of official clan, Han Chinese, and descendants of former officials were allowed to receive education and take examinations.<ref>Took, ''A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China'', p. 99. <br /></ref>
Each ''tusi'' could build and live in a ''[[yamen]]''. A ''yamen'' was the headquarter of local officials that contained infrastructures, such as the courtroom, sacrificial altar, ancestral hall, granary, offices, and the living quarters of official’s family.<ref>Took, ''A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China'', p. 102.   </ref>
The structure of government and way of adjudication varied in each domain because of the diversity of ''tusi'''s cultural backgrounds. Normally, there were no statute law in the domain. The will of the tusi was the law.<ref>Took, ''A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China'', p. 115.   </ref> A ''tusi'' had court and jail in his ''yamen'' and could imprison or punish his subjects as long as he thought it was necessary. For instance, Li Depu, the native official of Anping subprefecture in Guangxi province, brutally punished a serf for wearing white stockings because according to his dress rule only official clans were allowed to do so.<ref>Took, ''A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China'', p. 176.   </ref> Commoners ruled by tusi often called them ''Tu Huangdi'' ("local emperor").<ref>Took, Jennifer, ''A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China: Franchising a Tai Chieftaincy Under the Tusi System of Late Imperial China.'' (Danvers: BRILL,2005). pp.90.</ref> This analogy between ''tusi'' and emperors in some way reflected the almost unfettered judicial power of a ''tusi'' in his domain.
''Tusi'' were given the power of collecting tax in their domain. For seasonal religious rituals or sacrifices, ''tusi'' had rights to collect rice and copper coins from each local household. As the head of clan, each ''tusi'' had right to disposal the property of his clan.<ref>Took, ''A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China'', p. 98.   </ref>
Apart from bodyguards, ''tusi'' were allowed to maintain a private military, the size of which depended on their domain's resources, to better defend the borderland and suppress rebellion.
==== Responsibilities of native chieftains during the Ming Dynasty ====
The ''tusi'' were considered vassals of the Ming emperor. They enjoyed autonomy or semi-autonomy in their domains, but were expected to maintain order and defend the border zones for the Ming dynasty. When the Ming court wanted to start any campaign near their domains, the chieftains were required to lead their private armies and assist the Ming army in the battle. Those soldiers supplied by ''tusi'' were called ''Tu Bing'' ("native soldier"). In the campaign against Annam, the Ming court recruited a large number of native soldiers from the southern provinces.<ref>Shin, ''The making of the Chinese state,'' p. 64.   </ref>
Also, ''tusi'' were required to pay tributes to the Ming court. The periodic tribute goods sent by native chieftains contained various goods:
#animals, such as horses and elephants
#products made from rare wild animals, such as elephant tusks and rhinoceros’ horns
#medicinal herbs
#incense
#silver utensils
#minerals, such as tin<ref name=":2" />
==== Income of ''tusi'' ====
''Tusi'' received no regular salary or stipend from the government but they were allowed to collect tax from their subjects. These taxes could be paid with crops, textiles and money. Some ''tusi'' required their subjects to pay them copper coin and chickens as gifts at some specific events of their clan. For example, in Anping of Guangxi province, each household was required to donate 400 copper coins during weddings and funerals of members of the ''tusi'''s family.<ref>Took, ''A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China'', p. 97.   </ref>
''Tusi'' could get paid by the government for their assistance in the battles, but this did not happen regularly.<ref name=":2" />
====Conflicts====
In 1388 the [[Ming–Mong Mao War (1386–1388)|Ming–Mong Mao War]] was fought between the general [[Mu Ying]] and the semi-independent ''tusi'' of [[Mong Mao]], Si Lunfa, located in what is now [[Tengchong]] in southwestern Yunnan.{{sfn|Dardess|2012|p=7}}
In 1397 the Ming intervened in a Mong Mao succession dispute, known as the [[Ming intervention in Mong Mao (1397–1398)|Ming–Mong Mao Intervention]].
In the late 1300s, [[Đại Việt]] attacked the tusis on the [[Guangxi]] border. This in conjunction with the overthrow of the [[Trần dynasty]] by the [[Hồ dynasty]] led to the [[Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam]].{{sfn|Dardess|2012|p=4}}
In 1438 the [[Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns|Mong Mao rebelled again]] and their leader Si Renfa attacked local tusi along the Yunnan border. Si Renfa was defeated in 1442 and captured by the [[Kingdom of Ava|Ava]] king, who turned him over to Ming custody, where he died in 1446.{{sfn|Dardess|2012|p=8}}
In 1621 the [[Yi people]] instigated the [[She-An Rebellion]] in Sichuan and Guizhou, which lasted until 1629 and took an astronomical toll on Ming resources before it was quelled.
=== ''Gaitu Guiliu'' ===
''Gaitu guiliu'' (改土歸流) was a policy of abolishing the rule of local ''tusi'' (土司) and replace (''gai'' 改) them by a "mainstream" (''liu'' 流) direct administration. ''Gaitu guiliu'' was heavily enforced during the Ming and Qing periods.
During the Ming dynasty, there were 179 ''tusi'' and 255 ''tuguan'' ({{zh|土官}}, "native civilian commanders") in Yunnan and titles were generally retained with the exception of punishment for severe crimes.<ref name="WindCloud"/> The ''tusi'' were greatly reduced during the Ming-Qing era. By the time of the [[Yongzheng Emperor]], there were only around 41 left in Yunnan, including [[Cheli, Yunnan|Cheli]], [[Gengma]], [[Longchuan County, Yunnan|Longchuan]], Ganya (modern [[Yingjiang County|Yingjiang]]), [[Nandian, Yunnan|Nandian]], [[Menglian]], [[Zhefang]], [[Zhanda]], [[Lujiang (disambiguation)|Lujiang]], [[Mangshi]], Mengmao ([[Ruili]]), Nalou, [[Kuirong]], [[Shierguan]], [[Menghua]], [[Jingdong Yi Autonomous County|Jingdong]], [[Mengding]], [[Yongning District|Yongning]], [[Fuzhou, Yunnan|Fuzhou]], [[Wandian, Yunnan|Wandian]], [[Zhenkang]], and [[Beishengzhou]].<ref name="WindCloud"/>
Under Ming administration, the jurisdictional authority of tusi began to be replaced with state territorial authority. The ''tusi'' acted as stop gaps until enough Chinese settlers arrived for a "tipping point" to be reached, and they were then converted into official prefectures and counties to be fully annexed into the central bureaucratic system of the Ming dynasty. This process was known as ''gaitu guiliu'' ({{zh|s=改土归流|t=改土歸流}}), or "turning native rule into regular administration".{{sfn|Dardess|2012|p=6}} The most notable example of this was the consolidation of southwestern ''tusi'' chiefdoms into the province of [[Guizhou]] in 1413.{{sfn|Dardess|2012|p=6}}
{{quotation|Building upon the Yuan precedent, the Ming began its colonization of the southwest in the 1370s, and though its military strength waxed and waned, it was able to eliminate the largest autonomous kingdoms in the southwest by the early decades of the seventeenth century. By the time of the [[Ming-Qing transition]], what remained in the southwest were only a few small autonomous polities, and the [[Rebellion of the Three Feudatories]] (sanfan zhi luan; 1673-81) did much to erase these from the landscape. In short, the Yongzheng Emperor's appointment of his trusted Manchu official [[Ortai]] (1680-1745) and the aggressive campaign against tusi offices they initiated in the 1720s in the southwest should be seen as the end point, not the beginning, of China's colonization of the southwest.{{sfn|Herman|2007|p=12}}|John E. Herman}}
In sum, ''gaitu guiliu'' was the process of replacing ''tusi'' with state-appointed officials, the transition from jurisdictional sovereignty to territorial sovereignty, and the start of formal empire rather than informal.{{sfn|Herman|2007|p=16}}
===End===
In Guangxi, the [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] [[Yongzheng Emperor]] took on a campaign to reform native [[Zhuang people|Zhuang]] following which 87 out of 128 ''tusis'' were replaced by officials. <ref name="J. Took">{{cite book |last=Took |first=Jennifer  |date=2005 |title=A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China: Franchising a Tai Chieftaincy Under the Tusi System of Late Imperial China |publisher=Brill |page=233 |isbn=978-90-04-14797-3}}</ref> At the start of the 20th century, there were eight ''tusis'' remaining, all within present-day [[Daxin County]]. In 1928, [[Xincheng County|Xincheng]], the last tusi in Guangxi was converted to a county, ending the ''gaitu guiliu'' reforms.<ref name="J. Took"/>
On 23 January 1953, the [[China|P.R. China]] (PRC) established the [[Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture|Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Region]] and ended the last Tusi system in [[Sipsongpanna]].
==Native Chieftain titles==
The native chieftain system also fit in the Nine Ranks system (''Jiu Pin''; "九品").The Nine Ranks system is a system of gradations used by regimes from post-Han to Qing.<ref name=":3">Charles O,Hucker. ''A dictionary of official titles in Imperial China''. (Stanford : Stanford University Press, 1985),p. 4-5.  </ref> Under this system, all the officials in the bureaucracy were put into nine major categories: upper-upper, upper-middle, upper-lower, middle-upper, middle-middle, middle-lower, lower-upper, lower-middle, and lower-lower.<ref name=":3" /> Each category was given a rank numbered from 1 to 9. The rank 1 is the highest rank and the rank 9 is the lowest. Each rank was divided into two grades: upper ({{lang|zh|正}}) and lower ({{lang|zh|從}}).<ref name=":3" />
The central government gave different titles to native chieftains and these titles had different ranks in the Nine Ranks system:
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!
!Official Name
!Rank
|-
|1
|Junmin Xuanweishi({{lang|zh|軍民宣慰使}})
|
|-
|2
|Xuanweishi ({{lang|zh|宣慰使}})
|3b<ref name=":4">杨,虎得；柏,桦(2016).“明代宣慰与宣抚司”. 西南大学学报(社会科学版).42:173-180.p.182.</ref>
|-
|3
|Xuanfushi ({{lang|zh|宣撫使}})
|4b<ref name=":4" />
|-
|4
|Anfushi ({{lang|zh|安撫使}})
|5b<ref>Hucker, Charles O. ''A dictionary of official titles in Imperial China''. (Stanford : Stanford University Press, 1985),pp.104</ref>
|-
|5
|Zhaotaoshi ({{lang|zh|招討使}})
|5b<ref>Hucker, ''A dictionary of official titles in Imperial China,'' p.117.   </ref>
|-
|6
|Xunjianshi ({{lang|zh|巡檢使}})
|9b<ref>Hucker, ''A dictionary of official titles in Imperial China,'' p. 254.   </ref>
|-
|7
|Tu Zhifu ({{lang|zh|土知府}})
|4a<ref name=":5">Hucker, ''A dictionary of official titles in Imperial China,'' p.158.    <br /></ref>
|-
|8
|Tu Zhizhou ({{lang|zh|土知州}})
|5b<ref>Hucker, ''A dictionary of official titles in Imperial China,'' p.157.   </ref>
|-
|9
|Tu Zhixian ({{lang|zh|土知縣}})
|6b or 7b<ref name=":5" />
|-
|10
|Zhangguan({{lang|zh|長官}})
|6a<ref>Hucker, ''A dictionary of official titles in Imperial China,'' p. 110.   </ref>
|-
|11
|Manyi Zhangguan({{lang|zh|蠻夷長官}})
|
|}
==List of ''tusi''==
===Chongqing province ''tusi''===
*[[Chiefdom of Shizhu]] ({{zh|[[:zh:石砫土司|石砫土司]]}}), ruled [[Shizhu Tujia Autonomous County|Shizhu]], ended in 1761 when the final tusi became a local magistrate
===Guangxi province ''tusi''===
*[[Chiefdom of Yongshun]] ({{zh|[[:zh:永顺土司|永順土司]]}}), ruled [[Yizhou District, Hechi|Yizhou District]], abolished in 1928 and merged into Yizhou District
*Anping
*Xincheng
*Wancheng
===Guizhou province ''tusi''===
*[[Chiefdom of Bozhou]] ({{zh|播州土司}}), ruled Bozhou (present day [[Zunyi]]), abolished after a failed rebellion in 1600
*[[Chiefdom of Shuidong]] ({{zh|[[:zh:水東土司|水東土司]]}}), ruled Shuidong (present day [[Sinan County, Guizhou|Sinan County]]), abolished after a failed rebellion in 1630
*[[Mu'ege|Chiefdom of Shuixi]] ({{zh|[[:zh:水西土司|水西土司]]}}), ruled Shuixi (present day [[Dafang County]]), abolished in 1698
*[[Chiefdom of Sinan]] ({{zh|[[:zh:思南土司|思南土司]]}}), ruled [[Sinan County, Guizhou|Sinan]], abolished in 1414
*[[Chiefdom of Sizhou]] ({{zh|[[:zh:思州土司|思州土司]]}}), ruled Sizhou (present day [[Cengong County]]), abolished in 1414
===Sichuan province ''tusi''===
*[[Chiefdom of Canbolang]] ({{zh|[[:zh:參卜郎千戶所|參卜郎千戶所]]}}), ruled [[Litang County]]
*[[Chiefdom of Dongbohanhu]] ({{zh|[[:zh:董卜韓胡宣慰使司|董卜韓胡宣慰使司]]}}), ruled [[Jinchuan County]]
*[[Chiefdom of Leipo]] ({{zh|[[:zh:雷坡長官司|雷坡長官司]]}}), ruled [[Leibo County]]
*[[Chiefdom of Manyi]] ({{zh|[[:zh:蠻夷長官司|蠻夷長官司]]}}), ruled [[Pingshan County, Sichuan|Pingshan County]]
*[[Chiefdom of Mo'erkan]] ({{zh|[[:zh:磨兒勘招討司|磨兒勘招討司]]}}), ruled [[Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture]] and [[Markam County]]
*[[Chiefdom of Muchuan]] ({{zh|[[:zh:沐川長官司|沐川長官司]]}}), ruled [[Pingshan County, Sichuan|Pingshan County]]
*[[Chiefdom of Nixi]] ({{zh|[[:zh:泥溪長官司|泥溪長官司]]}}), ruled [[Pingshan County, Sichuan|Pingshan County]]
*[[Chiefdom of Pingyi]] ({{zh|[[:zh:平夷長官司|平夷長官司]]}}), ruled [[Pingshan County, Sichuan|Pingshan County]] and [[Suijiang County]]
*[[Chiefdom of Yidu]] ({{zh|[[:zh:夷都長官司|夷都長官司]]}}), ruled [[Pingshan County, Sichuan|Pingshan County]]
===Yunnan province ''tusi''===
*[[Chiang Hung]], ruled Sipsong Panna (present day [[Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture]])
*[[Mong Mao]]
*[[Kokang]] - [[Chiefdom of Kokang]]
*[[Chiefdom of Heqing]] ({{zh|[[:zh:鹤庆土司|鶴慶土司]]}}), ruled [[Heqing County]], descendants of [[Gao Shengtai]], became a local magistrate in 1683
*[[Chiefdom of Ganya]] ({{zh|[[:zh:干崖土司|干崖土司]]}}), ruled [[Yingjiang County]], abolished in 1949
*[[Chiefdom of Gengma]] ({{zh|[[:zh:耿馬司|耿馬司]]}}), ruled [[Gengma Dai and Va Autonomous County]], abolished in 1950
*[[Chiefdom of Lijiang]] ({{zh|麗江土司}}), ruled [[Lijiang]]
*[[Chiefdom of Luomeng]] ({{zh|[[:zh:落蒙万户府|落蒙萬戶府]]}}), ruled [[Shilin Yi Autonomous County]]
*[[Meng Xon]] ({{lang|tdd|ᥛᥫᥒᥰ ᥑᥩᥢᥴ}}), or [[Chiefdom of Mangshi]] ({{zh|[[:zh:芒市土司|芒市土司]]}}), ruled [[Mangshi]]
*[[Chiefdom of Mengban]] ({{zh|[[:zh:勐板土千總|勐板土千總]]}}), ruled [[Mangshi]]
*[[Chiefdom of Menghai]] ({{zh|[[:zh:勐海土司|勐海土司]]}}), ruled [[Menghai County]]
*[[Chiefdom of Menghan]] ({{zh|[[:zh:勐罕土司|勐罕土司]]}}), ruled [[Jinghong]]
*[[Chiefdom of Mengjiaodong]] ({{zh|[[:zh:勐角董土司|勐角董土司]]}}), ruled [[Cangyuan Va Autonomous County]]
*[[Chiefdom of Yao'an]] ({{zh|姚安土司}}), ruled [[Yao'an County]], descendants of [[Gao Shengtai]]
*[[Chiefdom of Yongning]] ({{zh|永寧土司}}), ruled Yongning (present day [[Ninglang Yi Autonomous County]])
*[[Chiefdom of Yongsheng]] ({{zh|永勝土司}}), ruled [[Yongsheng County]], descendants of [[Gao Shengtai]]
*[[Chiefdom of Zhefang]] ({{zh|[[:zh:遮放土司|遮放土司]]}}), ruled [[Mangshi]]
===Tibetan ''tusi''===
*[[Chiefdom of Chuchen]], or Chiefdom of Greater Jinchuan ({{zh|大金川土司}}), ruled present day [[Jinchuan County]], annexed by Qing China in [[Jinchuan campaigns]]
*[[Chiefdom of Tsanlha]] ({{bo|t=བཙན་ལྷ་རྒྱལ་པོ|w=btsan lha rgyal po}}), or Chiefdom of Lesser Jinchuan ({{zh|小金川土司}}), ruled present day [[Xiaojin County]], annexed by Qing China in [[Jinchuan campaigns]]
*[[Chiefdom of Bathang]] ({{bo|t=འབའ་ཐང་རྒྱལ་པོ|w=ʼbaʼ thang rgyal po}}, {{zh|巴塘土司}}), ruled [[Batang County]], [[1905 Tibetan Rebellion|revolted against Qing China in 1905]] and was annexed in the next year
*[[Chiefdom of Lithang]] ({{bo|t=ལི་ཐང་རྒྱལ་པོ|w=li thang rgyal po}}, {{zh|理塘土司}}), ruled [[Litang County]], [[1905 Tibetan Rebellion|revolted against Qing China in 1905]] and was annexed in the next year
*[[Chiefdom of Béri]] ({{bo|t=བེ་རི་རྒྱལ་པོ|w=be ri rgyal po}}) or Chiefdom of Baili ({{zh|[[:zh:白利土司|白利土司]]}}), ruled Béri (present day part of [[Garzê County]])
*[[Kingdom of Chakla]] ({{bo|t=ལྕགས་ལ་རྒྱལ་པོ|w=lcags la rgyal po}}) or Chiefdom of Mingzheng ({{zh|明正土司}}), ruled Dartsedo (present day [[Kangding]])
*[[Kingdom of Derge]] ({{bo|t=སྡེ་དགེ་རྒྱལ་པོ|w=sde dge rgyal po}}; {{zh|德格土司}}), ruled [[Dêgê County]]
*[[Chiefdom of Muli]] ({{bo|t=སྨི་ལི་རྒྱལ་པོ|w=smi li rgyal po}}; {{zh|[[:zh:木里土司|木里土司]]}}), ruled present day [[Muli Tibetan Autonomous County]]
*[[Kingdom of Powo]] ({{bo|t=ཀཿགནམ་རྒྱ་པོ|w=ka: gnam rgyal po}}; {{zh|波密土王}}), ruled present day [[Bomê County]], annexed by [[Tibet (1912–1951)|Tibet]] in 1928. Descendants of [[Drigum Tsenpo]].
*[[Chiefdom of Zhuoni]] ({{bo|t=ཅོ་ནེ་དཔོན་པོ|w=co ne dpon po}}; {{zh|[[:zh:卓尼土司|卓尼土司]]}}), ruled [[Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture]]
*[[Chiefdom of Duogandan]] ({{zh|[[:zh:朵甘丹招討司|朵甘丹招討司]]}}), ruled [[Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture]] and [[Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture]]
*[[Chiefdom of Duogancangtang]] ({{zh|[[:zh:朵甘倉溏招討司|朵甘倉溏招討司]]}}), ruled [[Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture]]
*[[Chiefdom of Duogan]] ({{zh|[[:zh:朵甘宣慰使司|朵甘宣慰使司]]}}), ruled [[Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture]]
*[[Chiefdom of Duoganchuan]] ({{zh|[[:zh:朵甘川招討司|朵甘川招討司]]}}), ruled [[Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture]]
*[[Chiefdom of Duogansi]] ({{zh|[[:zh:朵甘思千戶所|朵甘思千戶所]]}}), ruled [[Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture]]
*[[Chiefdom of Duoganlongda]] ({{zh|[[:zh:朵甘隴答招討司|朵甘隴答招討司]]}}), ruled [[Chamdo]] and [[Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture]]
*[[Kingdom of Lingtsang]] ({{bo|t=གླིང་ཚང|w=gling tshang}}; {{zh|林蔥土司}}), ruled [[Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture]]
*[[Chiefdom of Changhexi]] ({{zh|[[:zh:長河西千戶所|長河西千戶所]]}}), ruled [[Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture]]
*[[Chiefdom of Longda]] ({{zh|[[:zh:隴答衛指揮使司|隴答衛指揮使司]]}}), ruled [[Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture]]
*[[Chiefdom of Nangqên]] ({{bo|t=ནང་ཆེན་རྒྱལ་པོ|w=nang chen rgyal po}}; {{zh|[[:zh:囊谦土司|囊謙土司]]}}), ruled [[Nangqên County]]
*[[Chiefdom of Dasima]] ({{zh|[[:zh:答思麻万户府|答思麻萬戶府]]}}), ruled [[Hainan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture]]
==See also==
{{wiktionary|土司}}
*[[Chiefdom]]
*[[Jimi system]]
*[[Tributary system of China]]
*[[Mandala (political model)]]
*[[Chao Pha]]
*[[Mueang]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last=Dardess|first=John|title=Ming China 1368-1644 A Concise History of A Resilient Empire|year=2012|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.}}
*{{cite book|last=Herman|first=John E.|title=Amid the Clouds and Mist China's Colonization of Guizhou, 1200-1700|year=2007|publisher=Harvard University Asia Center}}
*Shin, Leo Kwok-yueh (2006). ''The making of the Chinese state: ethnicity and expansion on the Ming borderlands''. Cambridge University Press
*Took, Jennifer (2005). ''A Native Chieftaincy in Southwest China: Franchising a Tai Chieftaincy under Tusi System of Late Imperial China''. Leiden: Brill.
*Hucker, Charles O. (1985). ''A dictionary of official titles in Imperial China''. Stanford University Press.
{{Ming dynasty topics}}
{{Qing dynasty topics}}
[[Category:Tusi| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in China]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
[[Category:History of Yunnan]]
[[Category:History of Guizhou]]
[[Category:History of Guangxi]]
[[Category:History of Sichuan]]
[[Category:History of Chongqing]]
[[Category:History of Qinghai]]
[[Category:History of Tibet]]
[[Category:History of Hubei]]
[[Category:History of Hunan]]
[[Category:History of Vietnam]]