View source for U-matic

{{short description|Videocassette format; the first of its kind}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2017}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{original research|date=September 2014}}
{{more citations needed|date=September 2014}}
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{{EngvarB|date=August 2015}}
{{Infobox media
| name = U-matic
| logo = U-matic logo.svg
| image = U-matic.jpg
| caption = Sony U-matic cassette
| type = [[Magnetic cassette tape]], ¾-inch
| encoding = [[NTSC]], [[PAL]], [[SECAM]]
| released = September 1971<br>'''Lifespan:''' September 1971–June 2000<br><small>Technical Support 1971–2016</small>
| capacity =
| read =
| write =
| standard =
| owner = [[Sony]]
| use = [[Video production]]
| extended from =
| extended to =
}}
'''U-matic''' or '''{{fraction|3|4}}-inch Type E Helical Scan'''<ref>{{cite web |year=1997 |title=ST 21:1997 - SMPTE Standard - For Video Recording — 3/4-in Type E Helical Scan — Records |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7290138 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617064608/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7290138/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 June 2018 |publisher=SMPTE }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=1997 |title=ST 22:1997 - SMPTE Standard - For Video Recording — 3/4-in Type E Helical Scan — Cassette |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7290993 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180611222636/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7290993/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=11 June 2018 |publisher=SMPTE }}</ref> or '''[[SMPTE]] E'''<ref>{{cite web |last=Bentz |first=Carl |year=1984 |title=Broadcast Engineering, November 1984, p. 131 |url=https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-Broadcast-Engineering/BE/80s/BE-1984-11.pdf |publisher=Intertec Publishing Corporation }}</ref> is an [[analogue recording]] [[Videocassette#Cassette formats|videocassette]] format first shown by [[Sony]] in prototype in October 1969, and introduced to the market in September 1971. It was among the first video formats to contain the videotape inside a cassette, as opposed to the various [[reel-to-reel]] or open-reel formats of the time. The videotape is {{convert|3/4|in|mm|abbr=on}} wide, so the format is often known as "'''three-quarter-inch'''" or simply "three-quarter", compared to open reel videotape formats in use, such as {{convert|1|in|mm|0|abbr=on|adj=on}} [[type C videotape]] and {{convert|2|in|mm|0|abbr=on|adj=on}} [[quadruplex videotape]].
Unlike most other cassette-based tape formats, the supply and take-up reels in the cassette turn in opposite directions during playback, fast-forward, and rewind: one reel would run clockwise while the other would run counter-clockwise. A locking mechanism integral to each cassette case secures the tape hubs during transportation to keep the tape wound tightly on the hubs. Once the cassette is taken off the case, the hubs are free to spin. A spring-loaded tape cover door protects the tape from damage; when the cassette is inserted into the VCR, the door is released and is opened, enabling the VCR mechanism to spool the tape around the spinning video drum. Accidental recording is prevented by the absence of a red plastic button fitted to a hole on the bottom surface of the tape; removal of the button disabled recording.
== Development ==
[[File:AssortedENGTapeFormats.jpg|thumb|U-matic (back row, left) compared to [[Video8]] (center) small [[Betacam]] tape (back, right), [[VHS]] (front, left) and [[MII (videocassette format)|MII]] (front, right)]]
[[File:Umatic-cassette-(back).jpg|thumb|Large U-matic cassette]]
{{pic|U-matic SP logo.svg|Logo of U-matic SP}}
As part of its development, in March 1970, Sony, [[Matsushita Electric Industrial Co.]] (Panasonic), [[JVC|Victor Co. of Japan]] (JVC), and five non-Japanese companies reached agreement on unified standards. The first U-matic VCRs were released by Sony in 1971.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/sonyhistory-d.html|title = Sony Group Portal - Product & Technology Milestones−Recorder & Player}}</ref>
The first generation of U-matic VCRs are large devices, approximately {{convert|30|in|cm|abbr=on}} wide, {{convert|24|in|cm|abbr=on}} deep, and {{convert|12|in|cm|abbr=on}} high, requiring special shelving, and had mechanical controls limited to Record, Play, Rewind, Fast-Forward, Stop and Pause (with muted video on early models). Later models sported improvements such as chassis sized for EIA [[19-inch rack]] mounting, with sliding rack rails for compressed storage in broadcast environments, solenoid control mechanics, jog-shuttle knob, remote controls, [[Vertical interval timecode|Vertical Interval Time Code]] (VITC), longitudinal time code, internal cuts-only editing controls, "Slo-Mo" slow-motion playback, and [[Dolby Laboratories|Dolby]] [[audio noise reduction]].
U-matic was named after the shape of the tape path when it was threaded around the [[helical scan|helical-scan]] video head drum, which resembles the letter U.<ref>"After exhaustive research, the development team was confident it had devised a mechanism that could be used for cassette tape VCRs, the U-loading system.  The name was derived from the U-shaped figure the tape followed when seen from above."  Sony History, [Sony: Freedom of Thought and Creation—the Kihara Method].  {{cite web|url=https://www.sony.com/en/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/2-01.html#block3|title=Chapter1 The Video Cassette Tape|accessdate=2021-06-28|date=1996|author=Sony}}</ref> [[Betamax]] uses a similar type of "B-load" as well.  Recording time is limited to one hour.  It initially had a resolution of 250 [[Television lines|lines]].  Signals are recorded onto the tape using [[Frequency modulation]] (FM modulation).
U-matic saw two revisions to improve its image quality. The first was ''High-band'' or ''Hi-band'', with the original version becoming known as ''Low-band'' or ''Lo-band''. This was followed by SP (superior performance). Both revisions increased the FM carrier frequencies, increasing the available bandwidth on the tape, hence increasing image quality and the number of resolution lines. U-matic SP also introduced [[Chromium(IV) oxide|chrome dioxide]] tape. U-matic Hi-band recordings will play in black and white in U-matic Lo-band machines.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://umatic.palsite.com/features.html|title=U-matic PALsite: U-matic Features Guide}}</ref>
PAL U-matic Hi-band increased the FM carrier frequency to 4.8-6.4&nbsp;MHz, while U-matic SP increased it even further to 5.6-7.2&nbsp;MHz, while increasing the color carrier frequency to 924&nbsp;kHz.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nfsa.gov.au/preservation/preservation-glossary/u-matic|title=U-matic|date=8 July 2010}}</ref>
U-matic tape moves at 3.75 inches per second, and has a tape writing speed of 8.54 meters per second for PAL or 10.26 for NTSC. This means that the heads on the drums of U-matic VCRs move across the tape at one of those speeds. The drum has two heads, both of which are used for recording video. The drum spins at 1500 rpm for PAL or 1800 rpm for NTSC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://umatic.palsite.com/format.html#:~:text=Designed%20in%20the%20late%20sixties,of%208.54%20meters%20per%20second.|title=U-matic PALsite: The U-matic}}</ref> U-matic Lo-band when recording NTSC has a sync tip frequency of 3.8&nbsp;MHz, a peak white frequency of 5.4&nbsp;MHz, and a color carrier frequency of 688.373&nbsp;kHz. NTSC U-matic SP has a peak white frequency of 7&nbsp;MHz.
When recording PAL, U-matic Hi-band had a sync tip frequency of 4.8&nbsp;MHz, a peak white frequency of 6.4&nbsp;MHz, and a color carrier frequency of 983.803&nbsp;kHz, while U-matic Hi-Band SP had a sync tip frequency of 5.6&nbsp;MHz, and a peak white frequency of 7.2&nbsp;MHz, retaining the color carrier frequency of regular Hi-band.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.freetimeweb.nl/home/electro/video/u-matic/vo-2631_tape-loading.html|title=Sony U-Matic VO-2631 Tape}}</ref>
Some of the standards that define the format, are:<ref>{{cite web |title=Numerical index of standards, recommended practices, engineering guidelines and registered disclosure documents on the October 2009 (volume TV24-MP17) CD-ROM|url=https://static.aminer.org/pdf/PDF/000/318/747/a_method_of_inserting_binary_data_into_mpeg_bitstreams_for.pdf |publisher=SMPTE }}</ref>
* SMPTE 21M-1997 Video Recording – 3/4-in Type E Helical Scan – Records
* SMPTE 22M-1997 Video Recording – 3/4-in Type E Helical Scan – Cassette
* SMPTE 31M-2003 Television Analog Recording - 3/4-in Type E – Small Video Cassette
* RP 87-1999 (Archived 2004) Reference Carrier Frequencies, Preemphasis Characteristic and Audio and Control Signals for 3/4-in Type E Helical-Scan Video Tape Cassette Recording
==Introduction==
At the 1971 introduction of the first model of U-Matic VCR, the VO-1600, Sony originally intended it to be a videocassette format oriented at the consumer market, even including a VHF/UHF TV tuner built into the model for home television recording. This proved to be something of a failure, because of the high manufacturing cost and resulting retail price of the format's first VCRs.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JBKTF9PdgFMC&q=umatic%20a%20consumer%20format&pg=PT56|title=The Filmmaker's Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide for the Digital Age|first1=Steven|last1=Ascher|first2=Edward|last2=Pincus|date=4 September 2007|publisher=Penguin|via=Google Books|isbn=9781440637001}}</ref> But the cost was affordable enough for industrial and institutional customers, where the format was very successful for such applications as business communication and educational television. As a result, Sony shifted U-Matic's marketing to the industrial, professional, and educational sectors.
U-Matic saw even more success from the television broadcast industry in the mid-1970s, when a number of local TV stations and national TV networks used the format when its first portable model, the Sony VO-3800, was released in 1974. This model ushered in the era of ENG, or [[electronic news gathering]], which eventually made obsolete the previous [[16mm film]] cameras normally used for on-location television news gathering. Film required developing which took time, compared to the instantly available playback of videotape, making faster breaking news possible.
== Models ==
[[File:Sony U-Matic SP tape recorder (6498645805).jpg|thumb|Sony U-matic SP tape recorder]]
[[File:U-Matic VCR upright.jpg|thumb|right|A U-matic player, disassembled for repair]]
[[File:Sony BVE-600 UMatic edit controller (44714270850).jpg|thumb|Sony editing console BVE-600 for controlling two connected U-matic video recorders. Such assemblies were used for professional [[video editing]] in TV studios etc.]]
U-matic was also available in a smaller cassette size, officially known as U-Matic S. U-Matic S was developed as a more portable version of U-Matic, to be used in smaller-sized S-format recorders such as the aforementioned Sony VO-3800, as well as the later VO-4800, VO-6800, VO-8800, BVU-50, BVU-100, BVU-110, and BVU-150 models from Sony, among others from Sony, Panasonic, JVC and other manufacturers. To minimize weight and bulk in the field, portable recorders had an external AC power supply, or could be operated from rechargeable [[nickel cadmium battery|nickel-cadmium batteries]]. S-format tapes could be played back in older top-loading standard U-Matic decks with the aid of an adapter (the KCA-1 from Sony) which fitted around an S-sized tape; newer front-loading machines can accept S-format tapes directly, as the tapes have a slot on the underside that rides along a tab.
The standard cassette employed only one flange for each reel - top flange on the pickup reel and bottom flange on the supply reel. This allowed the reels to overlap like in [[Compact Cassette]], making the design more space-efficient. JVC explored similar approach for an early version of [[VHS]] cassette, but abandoned it in favor of full-flanged cassette, because such an arrangement created unnecessary friction between the edge of the tape and the inner surface of the cassette.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lardner |first=James |date=1987 |title=Fast forward: Hollywood, the Japanese, and the onslaught of the VCR |publisher=Norton|isbn=9780393023893 |pages=148–149}}</ref> In the U-Matic cassette friction was reduced by the reels, having overlapping flanges, rotating in the opposite direction. Nevertheless, the U-Matic S cassette acquired traditional double-flange reels, which reduced the amount of tape that could be loaded, and as such, the duration of recording. U-Matic S tapes had a maximum recording time of 20 minutes, and large ones 1-hour, although some tape manufacturers such as [[3M]] came out with 30-minute S-tapes and 75-minute large cassettes (and [[DuPont]] even managed 90-minute tapes)<ref>{{cite web|title=Billboard - July 16, 1977|url=http://americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Billboard/70s/1977/Billboard%201977-07-16.pdf|website=American Radio History}}</ref> by using a thinner tape. It was the U-Matic S-format decks that ushered in the beginning of ENG, or [[electronic news gathering]].
The price point of the VO family was primarily oriented toward educational, corporate and industrial fields, featured unbalanced audio connectors, and did not typically include [[SMPTE time code]] (although one or two companies offered after-market modification services to install longitudinal time code). The VO-3800 was largely metal, which made the unit heavy, but still technically portable. The VO-4800 had the same functionality as the VO-3800, but at a greatly reduced weight and size, by replacing many components with plastic. The VO-6800 added the improvement of a long, thin battery standard ("candy bars") that permitted storage of the batteries in a trouser pocket.  Common model numbers for these batteries were NP-1, NP-1A and NP-1B. The [http://www.broadcaststore.com/store/model_detail.cfm?id=7524 VO-8800] was the last of the portable VO series to be produced by Sony, and featured solenoid-controlled transport.
The Sony BVU family (Broadcast Video U-matic) added longitudinal and vertical interval [[SMPTE time code]], balanced audio [[XLR connector]]s, and heavier-duty transport features. The BVU-50 enabled recording in the field but not playback, and the BVU-100 permitted both recording and playback in the field. Portable recorders were connected to the camera with a multi-conductor cable terminated with multi-pin connectors on each end. The cable carried bi-directional audio, video, synchronisation, record on/off control, and power. Early studio and all portable U-Matic VCRs had a drawer-type mechanism which required the tape to be inserted, followed by manual closure of the drawer (a "top-loading" mechanism). Later studio VCRs accepted the cassette from a port opening and the cassette was pulled into and seated in the transport (a "front-loading" mechanism).
Some U-Matic VCRs could be controlled by external [[video editing]] controllers, such as the cuts-only Sony RM-440 for [[linear video editing]] systems. Sony and other manufacturers, such as Convergence, Calaway, and [[CMX Systems]], produced A/B roll systems, which permitted two or more VCRs to be controlled and synchronised for video dissolves and other motion effects, integration of the [[character generator]], audio controllers and [[digital video effect]]s (DVE).
In 1976, Sony introduced the semi backwards-compatible ''High-band'' or ''Hi-band'' revision, with the introduction of the top-loading BVU-200.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7241018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505124350/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7241018 |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 May 2020 |format=PDF |title=SMPTE Journal, Volume 85, September 1976 |journal=SMPTE Journal |date=September 1976 |volume=85 |issue=9 |pages=773–775 |access-date=2018-06-08|doi=10.5594/J07576 }}</ref> The original version became known as ''Low-band'' or ''Lo-band''. U-matic Hi-band had an improved colour recording system and lower noise levels. BVU gained immense popularity in ENG and location programme-making, spelling the end of [[16 mm film]] in everyday production. By the early 1990s, Sony's {{convert|1/2|in|cm|1|abbr=on|adj=on}} [[Betacam]] SP format had all but replaced BVU outside of corporate and budget programme making. With BVU-870, Sony made a final revision to U-matic, by further improving the recording system and giving it the same "SP" suffix as Betacam. SP had a horizontal resolution of 330 lines. The BVU-800 series Y-FM [[carrier frequency]] was upped to 1.2&nbsp;MHz giving it wider bandwidth. The BVU-800 series also added [[Dolby]] audio noise reduction. Sony's BVU-900 series were the last broadcast U-matic VTRs made by Sony.<ref name="derose">{{cite web|url=http://www.derose.net/steve/resources/video-resolution.html |title=Video resolution comparison chart |publisher=Derose.net |date=23 April 2003 |access-date=1 June 2010}}</ref> First-generation U-matic SP and Beta-SP recordings were hard to tell apart, but despite this the writing was on the wall for U-matic, due to intrinsic problems with the format.
== Problems ==
A recurring problem with the format was damage to the videotape caused by prolonged friction of the spinning video drum heads against a paused videocassette. The drum would rub oxide off the tape or the tape would wrinkle; when the damaged tape was played back, a horizontal line of distorted visual image would ascend in the frame, and audio would drop out. Manufacturers attempted to minimize this issue with schemes in which the tape would loosen around the spinning head or the head would stop spinning after resting in pause mode for a pre-determined period of time.<ref>{{cite web |last=Martin |first=Jeff |year=2007 |title=Curriculum Module 3/4" U-matic Videotape |url=http://www.nyu.edu/tisch/preservation/program/modules/Martin_UmaticTape.pdf |publisher=New York University's Moving Image Archiving & Preservation Program |access-date=22 August 2015 |type=pdf }}</ref>
The format video image also suffered from head-switching noise, a distortion of the image in which a section of video at the bottom of the video frame would be horizontally askew from the larger portion.
The format also had difficulties with reproducing the [[red]] color on the [[NTSC]] color standard, and red images would be noisier than other colors in the spectrum. For this reason, on-camera talent was discouraged from wearing red clothing that would call attention to technical shortcomings.
Copying video from one U-matic VCR to another compromised playback reliability, and levels of head-switching noise, [[chrominance|chroma]] smearing, and chroma noise compounded with every generation. These issues motivated videotape editors and engineers to use work-arounds to minimise this degradation. A time-base corrector (TBC) could be used to regenerate the sync tip portion of the video signal sent to the "recording" VCR, improving playback reliability. The "dub" cable, more formally called "demodulated" (or "demod" for short), was a multi-conductor cable that circumvented a portion of the video circuitry, minimising amplification noise.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.repairfaq.org/sam/vcrfaq.htm|title=Notes on the Troubleshooting and Repair of Video Cassette Recorders |author=Samuel M. Goldwasser |date=7 October 2010 |work=repairfaq.org}}</ref>
== Uses ==
For synchronisation to broadcast or [[post-production]] editing house [[genlock]] systems, U-Matic VCRs required a [[Time Base Corrector|time base corrector]] (TBC). Some TBCs had a drop-out compensation (DOC) circuit which would hold lines of video in temporary digital memory to compensate for oxide drop-out or wrinkle flaws in the videotape, however the DOC circuits required several cables and expert calibration for use.
U-matic tapes were also used for easy transport of filmed scenes for [[dailies]] in the days before VHS, DVD, and portable hard drives. Several movies have surviving copies in this form. The first [[rough cut]] of ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'', for example (the raw version of what became ''Apocalypse Now Redux''), survived on three U-Matic cassettes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mixonline.com/mag/audio_apocalypse_redux/|title=Apocalypse Now REDUX|last=Blake|first=Larry|date=August 1, 2001|website=MixOnline|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727225102/https://www.mixonline.com/mag/audio_apocalypse_redux/|archive-date=July 27, 2014}}</ref>
Audio quality was compromised due to the use of longitudinal audio tape heads in combination with slow tape speed. Sony eventually implemented [[Dolby noise-reduction system|Dolby noise reduction]] circuitry (using [[Dolby C]]) to improve audio fidelity.
The 2012 film ''[[No (2012 film)|No]]'', set in 1980s Chile, used U-matic tape for filming.<ref>{{cite news|last=Appelo|first=Tim|title=OCT 9 2 MOS Latin America's Frontrunner in Foreign Oscar Race is 'No,' With Gael Garcia Bernal|url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/race/gael-garcia-bernal-no-lead-377644|access-date=5 December 2012|newspaper=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=9 October 2012}}</ref>
==Digital audio==
{{see also|44.1 kHz}}
U-matic was also used for the storage of [[digital audio]] data. Most digital audio recordings from the 1980s were recorded on U-matic tape via a Sony PCM-1600, -1610, or -1630 [[PCM adaptor]]. These devices accepted stereo analogue audio, digitized it, and generated "pseudo video" from the bits, storing 96 bits—three stereo pairs of 16-bit samples—as bright and dark regions along each scan line. (On a monitor the "video" looked like vibrating checkerboard patterns.) This could be recorded on a U-matic recorder. This was the first system used for mastering audio [[compact disc]]s in the early 1980s. The famous [[Compact Disc|compact disc]] [[44.1 kHz]] [[sampling rate]] was based on a best-fit calculation for PAL and monochrome NTSC video's horizontal line period and rate and U-matic's luminance bandwidth. On playback, the PCM adapter converted the light and dark regions back into bits. [[Compact Disc manufacturing#Mastering|Glass masters]] for audio CDs were made via laser from the PCM-1600's digital output to a [[photoresist]]- or dye-polymer-coated disc. This method was common until the mid-1990s.
== Decline of use ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2014}}
U-matic is no longer used as a mainstream [[television production]] format, but it found lasting appeal as a cheap, well specified, and hard-wearing format. The format permitted many broadcast and non-broadcast institutions to produce [[television program]]ming on an accessible budget, spawning programming distribution, classroom playback, etc. At its peak popularity, U-matic recording and playback equipment was manufactured by Sony, Panasonic and JVC, with many spin-off product manufacturers, such as video edit controllers, time base correctors, video production furniture, playback monitors and carts, etc.
Many television facilities the world over still have a U-matic recorder for archive playback of material recorded in the 1970s and 1980s. For example, the US Library of Congress facility in [[Culpeper, Virginia]], holds thousands of titles on U-matic video as a means of providing access copies and proof for copyright deposit of old television broadcasts and films.
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book |last=Abramson |first=Albert |url=https://archive.org/details/historyoftelevis0000abra_o1e9/page/153 |page=153 |title=The History of Television, 1942 to 2000 |publisher=McFarland |others=Foreword by Christopher H. Sterling |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7864-1220-4 |location=Jefferson, N.C. |oclc=48837571 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Donald |first=Ralph |url=https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofte0000dona/page/188 |title=Fundamentals of Television Production |last2=Spann |first2=Thomas |publisher=Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa |year=2000 |isbn=9780813827391 |location=Ames, Iowa |pages=188–190 |oclc=42667926 |url-access=registration}}
==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{cite web|url=http://news.sel.sony.com/en/corporate_information/print.php?path=/SelNews/corp_info/company_of_firsts.xml|language=en|publisher=[[Sony]]|title=Sony History|url-status=dead|date=March 2005|archivedate=September 27, 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927150820/http://news.sel.sony.com/en/corporate_information/print.php?path=/SelNews/corp_info/company_of_firsts.xml}}
* [http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/sonyhistory-d.html Sony.com Sony History timeline]
* [http://www.totalrewind.org/revolutn.htm Total Rewind, U-matic VCRs, Photos and comparison of various Sony U-matic decks]
* [https://patents.google.com/patent/USD227579 Sony U.S. patent for U-matic videotape recorder], filed 1971.
* [https://patents.google.com/patent/US3735939 Sony U.S. patent for U-matic cassette], filed 1971.
* [http://umatic.palsite.com/vo2630ovi.shtml U-matic Pal site Type 2 U-matic]
* [http://umatic.palsite.com/history.html U-matic Pal site, History]
* [https://www.experimentaltvcenter.org/origination-formats-and-machines-34-u-matic-transfers Origination Formats and Machines - 3/4" U-matic transfers] in the [[Experimental Television Center]]
* [http://www.r-vcr.com/umatic.htm R-VCR, History of Videotape U-matic page]
* [http://www.rewindmuseum.com/umatic.htm Rewind Museum Sony VO-1600. The worlds first VCR. 1971]
* [http://www.arts.state.tx.us/video/id/umatic.asp Texas Commission on the Arts, Videotape Identification and Assessment Guide]
* [http://umatic.palsite.com/ U-matic PALsite information about the U-matic video format.]
* [http://www.labguysworld.com/Museum007.htm Lab Guy's World Three Quarter Inch Umatic VCR's]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110122075020/http://www.transdiffusion.org/emc/techmark/baird.php Trans Diffusion, Tech Mark, From Baird to MPEG, By Martin Fenton]
* [http://www.tvhistory.tv/VCR%20History.htm  tvhistory.tv VCR and Home Video History]
{{Homevid}}
{{Sony Corp}}
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[[Category:Audiovisual introductions in 1971]]
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