View source for United States Army Corps of Engineers

{{Short description|Direct reporting unit and U.S. Army's branch for military engineering}}
{{Use American English|date = September 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name                     = United States Army Corps of Engineers
| image                         = USACE.gif
| caption                       = USACE [[Shoulder sleeve insignia|Shoulder Sleeve Insignia]]
| dates                         = 1775–present
| country                       = {{flag|United States}}
| branch                        = {{flag|United States Army|name=U.S. Army}}
| type                          = Direct Reporting Unit
| role                          = [[Military engineering]]
| size                          = [[Corps]]
| command_structure             = [[File:Emblem of the United States Department of the Army.svg|23px]] [[United States Department of the Army|U.S. Department of the Army]]
| garrison                      = [[Washington, D.C.]], U.S.
| garrison_label                = [[Headquarters]]
| motto                         = {{langx|fr|Essayons|lit=Let Us Try}}
| colors                        = {{nowrap|{{Color box|#FF2000|border=silver}}{{Color box|#FFFFFF|border=silver}} Scarlet and white}}
| anniversaries                 = 16 June (Organization Day)
| battles                       = {{hlist|[[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]]|[[War of 1812]]|[[Mexican–American War|Mexican War]]|[[American Civil War|Civil War]]|[[American Indian Wars|Indian Wars]]|[[Spanish–American War|War with Spain]]|[[China Relief Expedition]]|[[Philippine–American War|Philippine Insurrection]]|[[Pancho Villa Expedition|Mexican Expedition]]|[[World War I]]|[[World War II]]|[[Korean War]]|[[Vietnam War|Vietnam]]|[[Gulf War|Southwest Asia]]|[[Kosovo War|Kosovo]]|[[War on terror|War on Terrorism]]}}
| battles_label                 = Wars
| website                       = {{URL|https://www.usace.army.mil/|usace.army.mil}}
| commander1                    = [[Lieutenant general (United States)|Lieutenant General]] [[William H. Graham Jr.]]
| commander1_label              = Commander and [[List of United States Army Corps of Engineers Chiefs of Engineers|Chief of Engineers]]
| commander2                    = [[Major general (United States)|Major General]] [[Kimberly A. Colloton]]
| commander2_label              = Deputy Commander
| identification_symbol         = [[File:Chief of Engineers Flag.png|center|border|100px]]
| identification_symbol_label   = Flag
| identification_symbol_2       = [[File:United States Army Corps of Engineers logo.svg|center|100px]]
| identification_symbol_2_label = [[Corps Castle|Logo]]
| identification_symbol_3       = [[File:US-ArmyCorpsOfEngineers-COA.svg|center|100px]]
| identification_symbol_3_label = Coat of arms
| identification_symbol_5       = [[File:US-Engineers-Regimental_Insignia.png|center|100px]]
| identification_symbol_5_label = [[U.S. Army Regimental System|Engineer Regimental insignia]]
| identification_symbol_6       = USACE
| identification_symbol_6_label = Abbreviation
}}
[[File:Army Corps of Engineers Headquarters 2016.jpg|thumb|The headquarters of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Norfolk District in [[Norfolk, Virginia]]]]
[[File:OlmstedAerial 22May2012.jpg|thumb|[[Olmsted Locks and Dam]] on the [[Ohio River]] in [[Olmsted, Illinois]], was under construction for over 20 years under the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' watch; it opened in 2018.]]
[[File:Colonel Debra Lewis, a district commander with the Army Corps of Engineers and Sheik O'rhaman Hama Raheem.jpg|thumb|Celebratory proceedings in 2006 for the opening of a new women's center in [[Iraq]], constructed by the Corps of Engineers<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.civilgeo.com/debra-m-lewis/|title=Biography of Debra M. Lewis|access-date=2014-10-08}}</ref>]]
[[File:Dredge Tauracavor 3.jpg|right|thumb|U.S. Army Corps of Engineers dredge ''Tauracavor 3'' in [[New York Harbor]]]]
[[File:Mississippi River Improvement 1890.jpg|thumb|[[Mississippi River]] improvements made by the Corps of Engineers in 1890]]
[[File:Proctor Lake, Texas.jpg|right|thumb|[[Proctor Lake]] in Texas, constructed by the Corps of Engineers to provide flood control, drinking water, and recreation]]
The '''United States Army Corps of Engineers''' ('''USACE''') is the [[Military engineering|military engineering]] branch of the [[United States Army]]. A direct reporting unit (DRU), it has three primary mission areas: [[#The Engineer Regiment|Engineer Regiment]], [[military construction]], and [[civil works]]. USACE has 37,000 civilian and military personnel,<ref name="About the US Army Corps of Engineers">{{cite web| url=http://www.usace.army.mil/About.aspx |title=About -- Headquarters U.S. Army Corps of Engineers |publisher=usace.army.mil |access-date=2015-01-12}}</ref> making it one of the world's largest [[public services|public]] engineering, design, and [[construction management]] agencies. The USACE workforce is approximately 97% civilian, 3% active duty military.  The civilian workforce is primarily located in the United States, Europe and in select Middle East office locations.  Civilians do not function as active duty military and are not required to be in active war and combat zones; however, volunteer (with pay) opportunities do exist for civilians to do so.
The day-to-day activities of the three mission areas are administered by a [[Lieutenant general (United States)|lieutenant general]] known as the [[List of United States Army Corps of Engineers Chiefs of Engineers|chief of engineers]]/commanding general. The chief of engineers commands the Engineer Regiment, comprising [[combat engineer]], rescue, construction, dive, and other specialty units, and answers directly to the [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army|Chief of Staff of the Army]]. Combat engineers, sometimes called [[sappers]], form an integral part of the Army's [[combined arms|combined arms team]] and are found in all Army service components: Regular Army, [[United States National Guard|National Guard]], and [[United States Army Reserve|Army Reserve]]. Their duties are to breach obstacles; construct fighting positions, fixed/floating bridges, and obstacles and defensive positions; place and detonate explosives; conduct route clearance operations; emplace and detect landmines; and fight as provisional infantry when required. For the military construction mission, the chief of engineers is directed and supervised by the Assistant Secretary of the Army for installations, environment, and energy, whom the President appoints and the Senate confirms. Military construction relates to construction on military bases and worldwide installations.
On 16 June 1775, the [[Continental Congress]], gathered in [[Philadelphia]], granted authority for the creation of a "Chief Engineer for the Army". Congress authorized a corps of engineers for the United States on 11 March 1779. The Corps as it is known today came into being on 16 March 1802, when the president was authorized to "organize and establish a Corps of Engineers ... that the said Corps ... shall be stationed at [[West Point, New York|West Point]] in the [[New York (state)|State of New York]] and shall constitute a [[United States Military Academy|Military Academy]]." A [[United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers|Corps of Topographical Engineers]], authorized on 4 July 1838, merged with the Corps of Engineers in March 1863.
Civil works are managed and supervised by the [[Assistant Secretary of the Army (Civil Works)|Assistant Secretary of the Army]]. Army civil works include three [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]]-authorized business lines: navigation, flood and storm damage protection, and aquatic ecosystem restoration. Civil works is also tasked with administering the [[Clean Water Act]] Section 404 program, including recreation, hydropower, and water supply at USACE flood control reservoirs, and environmental infrastructure. The civil works staff oversee construction, operation, and maintenance of dams, [[canals]] and [[flood protection]] in the U.S., as well as a wide range of [[public works]] throughout the world.<ref name=org>{{cite web| url=http://www.usace.army.mil|title=Headquarters U.S. Army Corps of Engineers|work=army.mil}}</ref> Some of its dams, reservoirs, and flood control projects also serve as public outdoor recreation facilities. Its hydroelectric projects provide 24% of U.S.&nbsp;[[hydropower]] capacity.
The Corps of Engineers is headquartered in [[Washington, D.C.]], and has a budget of $7.8 billion (FY2021).<ref>{{cite report |first2=Nicole T.|last2=Carter |first1=Anna E.|last1=Normand |date=24 March 2021 |title=Army Corps of Engineers: FY2021 Appropriations |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF11462 |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]] |page=1 |access-date=19 July 2021}}</ref>
The corps's mission is to "deliver vital public and military engineering services; partnering in peace and war to strengthen our nation's security, energize the economy and reduce risks from disasters."<ref name="mission">{{cite web|url=http://www.usace.army.mil/About/MissionandVision.aspx|title=Mission and Vision -- Headquarters U.S. Army Corps of Engineers|work=army.mil}}</ref>
Its most visible civil works missions include:
* Planning, designing, building, and operating [[Lock (water transport)|locks]] and dams. Other [[civil engineering]] projects include [[flood control]], [[beach nourishment]], and dredging for waterway navigation.
* Design and construction of flood protection systems through various federal [[Civil law (legal system)|mandate]]s<!--- Section commented out: (see [[United States Army Corps of Engineers#Public Laws affecting the Corps of Engineers|Public Laws]] below)--->.
* Design and construction management of military facilities for the Army, [[United States Air Force|Air Force]], Army Reserve, and [[United States Air Force Reserve Command|Air Force Reserve]] as well as other [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] and federal government agencies.
* Environmental regulation and [[ecosystem]] restoration.
==History==
===18th century===
[[File:West Point, From Above Washington Valley Concept Plan.jpg|thumb|Plan of the [[United States Military Academy]] in [[West Point, New York]]]]
The history of United States Army Corps of Engineers can be traced back to the [[American Revolution]]. On 16 June 1775, the [[Continental Congress]] organized the Corps of Engineers, whose initial staff included a [[Chief of Engineers|chief engineer]] and two assistants.<ref name=history>[http://www.usace.army.mil/About/History/BriefHistoryoftheCorps.aspx The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: A Brief History], U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Headquarters.</ref> [[Colonel (United States)|Colonel]] [[Richard Gridley]] became General [[George Washington]]'s first chief engineer. One of his first tasks was to build fortifications near [[Boston]] at [[Bunker Hill Monument|Bunker Hill]]. The Continental Congress recognized the need for engineers trained in military fortifications and asked the government of [[Louis XVI of France|King Louis XVI]] of France for assistance.  Many of the early engineers in the Continental Army were former French officers.
[[Louis Lebègue Duportail]], a lieutenant colonel in the French Royal Corps of Engineers, was secretly sent to [[North America]] in March 1777 to serve in [[George Washington]]'s [[Continental Army]]. In July 1777 he was appointed colonel and commander of all engineers in the Continental Army and, on 17 November 1777, he was promoted to brigadier general. When the Continental Congress created a separate Corps of Engineers in May 1779, Duportail was appointed as its commander. In late 1781 he directed the construction of the allied U.S.-French siege works at the [[Siege of Yorktown|Battle of Yorktown]].
On 26 February 1783, the Corps was disbanded. It was re-established during the [[Presidency of George Washington]].
From 1794 to 1802, the engineers were combined with the artillery as the [[Early U.S. Artillery formations|Corps of Artillerists and Engineers]].<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Wade | first1 = Arthur P. | title = Artillerists and Engineers: The Beginnings of American Seacoast Fortifications, 1794-1815 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Py7DBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 | publisher = CDSG Press | year = 2011 | pages = 22–84 | isbn = 978-0-9748167-2-2}}</ref>
===19th century===
{{See also|United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers}}
The Corps of Engineers, as it is known today, was established on 16 March 1802, when President [[Thomas Jefferson]] signed the [[Military Peace Establishment Act]], whose aim was to "organize and establish a Corps of Engineers ... that the said Corps ... shall be stationed at [[West Point, New York|West Point]] in the State of New York and shall constitute a military academy." Until 1866, the superintendent of the [[United States Military Academy]] was always an Engineer Officer.
The [[General Survey Act]] of 1824 authorized the use of Army engineers to survey road and canal routes for the growing nation.<ref name="General Survey Act of 1824">{{cite web|url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/?&sid=cp10902KMw&r_n=hr474.109&dbname=cp109&&sel=TOC_5842&|title=Committee Reports|work=loc.gov|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130409224152/http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/?&sid=cp10902KMw&r_n=hr474.109&dbname=cp109&&sel=TOC_5842&|url-status=dead|access-date=18 March 2013|archive-date=9 April 2013}}</ref> That same year, Congress passed an "Act to Improve the Navigation of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers" and to remove sand bars on the Ohio and "planters, sawyers, or snags" (trees fixed in the riverbed) on the Mississippi, for which the Corps of Engineers was identified as the responsible agency.<ref name="USACE history">{{cite web|url=http://www.usace.army.mil/About/History/BriefHistoryoftheCorps/ImprovingTransportation.aspx|title=Headquarters U.S. Army Corps of Engineers > About > History > Brief History of the Corps > Improving Transportation|work=army.mil}}</ref>
Separately authorized on 4 July 1838, the Corps of Topographical Engineers consisted only of officers and was used for mapping and the design and construction of federal civil works and other coastal fortifications and navigational routes. It was merged with the Corps of Engineers on 31 March 1863, at which point the Corps of Engineers also assumed the Lakes Survey District mission for the [[Great Lakes]].<ref>''Charting the Inland Seas: A History of the U.S. Lake Survey'', Arthur M. Woodford, 1991</ref>
In 1841, Congress created the [[United States Lake Survey|Lake Survey]]. The survey, based in Detroit, Michigan, was charged with conducting a hydrographical survey of the Northern and Northwestern lakes and preparing and publishing nautical charts and other navigation aids. The Lake Survey published its first charts in 1852.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greatlakesmaps.org/Default.aspx?tabid=55|title=Lake Survey |publisher=Greatlakesmaps.org |access-date=2012-10-09}}</ref>
In the mid-19th century, Corps of Engineers' officers ran [[lighthouse|Lighthouse Districts]] in tandem with U.S. Naval officers.
====Civil War====
[[File:Ponton Bridge across the James River, Virginia 1864.jpg|[[Pontoon bridge]] across the [[James River]] in [[Virginia]] in 1864|alt=Pontoon bridge across the James River in Virginia in 1864|thumb]]
The Army Corps of Engineers played a significant role in the [[American Civil War]]. Many of the men who would serve in the top leadership in this organization were West Point graduates. Several rose to military fame and power during the Civil War. Some examples include [[Union Army|Union]] generals [[George B. McClellan|George McClellan]], [[Henry Halleck]], and [[George Meade]]; and [[Confederate Army|Confederate]] generals [[Robert E. Lee]], [[Joseph E. Johnston|Joseph Johnston]], and [[P.G.T. Beauregard]].<ref name=history/> The versatility of officers in the Army Corps of Engineers contributed to the success of numerous missions throughout the Civil War. They were responsible for building pontoon and railroad bridges, forts and batteries, destroying enemy supply lines (including railroads), and constructing roads for the movement of troops and supplies.<ref name=history/> Both sides recognized the critical work of engineers. On 6 March 1861, once the South had [[seceded]] from the Union, its legislature passed an act to create a Confederate Corps of Engineers.<ref name=shaun>First Lieutenant Shaun Martin, "Confederate Engineers in the American Civil War," ''Engineer: The Professional Bulletin for Army Engineers''. Technology Industry. U.S. Civil War Center</ref>
The South was initially at a disadvantage in engineering expertise; of the initial 65 cadets who resigned from West Point to accept positions with the Confederate Army, only seven were placed in the Corps of Engineers.<ref name=shaun/> The Confederate Congress passed legislation that authorized a company of engineers for every division in the field; by 1865, the CSA had more engineer officers serving in the field of action than the Union Army.<ref name=shaun/>
One of the main projects for the Army Corps of Engineers was constructing railroads and bridges. Union forces took advantage of such Confederate infrastructure because railroads and bridges provided access to resources and industry. The Confederate engineers, using slave labor,<ref name=slave>{{cite encyclopedia |last=DeCredico |first=Mary |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Virginia |title=Confederate Impressment During the Civil War |url=https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/confederate-impressment-during-the-civil-war/ |date=February 22, 2018 | access-date=2023-04-18 |publisher=Virginia Foundation for the Humanities |oclc=298460602 }}</ref> built fortifications that were used both offensively and defensively, along with trenches that made them harder to penetrate. This method of building trenches was known as the zigzag pattern.<ref name=shaun/>
===20th century===
[[File:Ledo Road, Burma 1944, Sgt. CG McCutcheon of 1304th Engineer Construction Battalion.jpg|thumb|A bulldozer operated by Sergeant C. G. McCutcheon of the 1304th Engineer Construction Battalion on [[Ledo Road]] in [[Burma]] in 1944]]
The [[National Defense Act of 1916]] authorized a reserve corps in the Army, and the Engineer Officers' Reserve Corps and the Engineer Enlisted Reserve Corps became one of the branches.<ref>''[https://dots.el.erdc.dren.mil/dig/ChiefsReportsFinal/TextFiles/1918%20Pt.1%20(entire).norm.txt Report of the Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, 1918]'', United States army Chief of Engineers, (Washington, DC: [[Government Printing Office]], 1918). Retrieved 26 May 2022.</ref> Some of these personnel were called into active service for [[World War I]].
From the beginning, many politicians wanted the Corps of Engineers to contribute to both military construction and civil works. Assigned the military construction mission on 1 December 1941, after the Quartermaster Department struggled with the expanding mission,<ref>[http://www.hq.usace.army.mil/history/vignettes/vignette_1.htm USACE Office of History vignettes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415174741/http://www.hq.usace.army.mil/history/vignettes/vignette_1.htm |date=15 April 2008 }}</ref> the Corps built facilities at home and abroad to support the U.S. Army and Air Force. During World War II the USACE program expanded to more than 27,000 military and industrial projects in a $15.3&nbsp;billion mobilization effort. Included were aircraft, tank assembly, and ammunition plants; camps for 5.3&nbsp;million soldiers; depots, ports, and hospitals; and the rapid construction of such landmark projects such as the [[Manhattan Project]] at Los Alamos, Hanford and Oak Ridge among other places, and [[the Pentagon]], the Department of Defense headquarters across the Potomac from Washington, DC.
In civilian projects, the Corps of Engineers became the lead federal navigation and flood control agency. Congress significantly expanded its civil works activities, becoming a major provider of hydroelectric energy and the country's leading provider of recreation. Its role in responding to natural disasters also grew dramatically, especially following the devastating [[Mississippi Flood of 1927]]. In the late 1960s, the agency became a leading environmental preservation and restoration agency.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}
In 1944, specially trained army [[combat engineers]] were assigned to blow up underwater obstacles and clear defended ports during the invasion of Normandy.<ref>Yung, Christopher D., ''Gators of Neptune: naval amphibious planning for the Normandy invasion'', Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, {{ISBN|1-59114-997-5}} (2006), pp. 99–103</ref><ref>Beck, Alfred M., ''United States Army in World War 2: The Technical Services, Ch. 14: Preparing For D-Day Landings'', CMH Pub. 10-22, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office (1985), p. 305</ref> During World War II, the Army Corps of Engineers in the [[European Theater of Operations]] was responsible for building numerous bridges, including the first and longest floating tactical bridge across the Rhine at [[Remagen]], and building or maintaining roads vital to the Allied advance across Europe into the heart of Germany. In the Pacific theater, the "Pioneer troops" were formed, a hand-selected unit of volunteer Army combat engineers trained in jungle warfare, knife fighting, and unarmed [[jujitsu]] ([[hand-to-hand combat]]) techniques.<ref name="WHI">Whittaker, Wayne, "Tough Guys", ''Popular Mechanics'', February 1943, Vol. 79 No. 2, pp. 41, 44-45</ref> Working in camouflage, the Pioneers cleared jungle, prepared routes of advance and established bridgeheads for the infantry, as well as demolishing enemy installations.<ref name="WHI"/>
Five [[Commanding General of the United States Army|commanding generals]] (chiefs of staff after the 1903 reorganization) of the [[United States Army]] held engineer commissions early in their careers. All transferred to other branches before being promoted to the top position. They were [[Alexander Macomb (American general)|Alexander Macomb]], [[George B. McClellan]], [[Henry W. Halleck]], [[Douglas MacArthur]], and [[Maxwell D. Taylor]].<ref>[http://www.history.army.mil/books/CG&CSA/Macomb-A.htm Bell, William Gardner, ''Commanding Generals and Chiefs of Staff, 1775–2005: Portraits & Biographical Sketches of the United States Army's Senior Officer'' (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 2006)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422131659/https://history.army.mil/books/CG%26CSA/Macomb-A.htm |date=22 April 2021 }}. {{ISBN|0-16-072376-0}}.</ref>
===Notable dates and projects===
[[File:Gatun Lock Construction, Panama Canal, March 12, 1912.jpg|thumb|Construction on the Gatun Lock at the [[Panama Canal]] on 12 March 1912]]
[[File:Aerial View of Launch Complex 39.jpg|thumb|[[Kennedy Space Center]] in [[Florida]]]]
* The [[General Survey Act]] of 1824 authorized use of army engineers to survey roads and canals. The next month, an act to improve navigation on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers initiated the Corps of Engineers' permanent civil works construction mission. Although the 1824 act to improve the Mississippi and Ohio rivers is often called the first [[Rivers and Harbors Act|rivers and harbors legislation]], the act passed in 1826 was the first to combine authorizations for both surveys and projects, thereby establishing a pattern that continues to the present day.<ref>[http://www.usace.army.mil/History/Documents/Brief/03-transportation/transport.html Improving Transportation] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106170052/http://www.usace.army.mil/History/Documents/Brief/03-transportation/transport.html |date=6 January 2012 }}</ref>
* Survey and construction of the [[National Road]] until Federal funds were withdrawn (1838)
* The {{convert|555|ft|5+1/8|in|m|2|abbr=on}} tall [[Washington Monument]], completed under the direction and command of Lieutenant Colonel [[Thomas Lincoln Casey Sr.|Thomas Lincoln Casey]], 1884
* [[Panama Canal]], completed under supervision of Army Engineer officers, 1914
* [[Flood Control Act of 1936]] made flood control a federal policy and officially recognized the Corps of Engineers as the major federal flood control agency
* [[Bonneville Dam]], completed in 1937
* [[Flood Control Act of 1941]], which channelized the [[Los Angeles River]] and parts of the [[Santa Ana River]]
* USACE took over all real estate acquisition, construction, and maintenance for army facilities, 1941
* There was no road between [[Costa Rica]] and [[Panama]] until the Corps began one in 1941–1943. The concern was access to the [[Panama Canal]] during wartime.<ref>{{cite news
|title=The birth of the Pan-American Highway in Costa Rica
|newspaper=[[Tico Times]]
|first=Max
|last=Schwartz
|date=19 November 2021
|url=https://ticotimes.net/2021/11/19/tbt-the-birth-of-the-pan-american-highway}}</ref>
* The [[Manhattan Project]] (1942–1946)<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.usace.army.mil/About/History/HistoricalVignettes/MilitaryConstructionCombat/113AtomicBomb.aspx|access-date=31 October 2012|title=Historical Vignette 113 - Hide the development of the atomic bomb|publisher=US Army Corps of Engineers Official Website}}</ref>
* Planning and construction of [[the Pentagon]], completed in 1943 just 16 months after groundbreaking<ref>{{cite web|title=Historical Vignette 034 - the Corps Built the Pentagon in 16 Months|publisher=US Army Corps of Engineers Official Website|access-date=31 October 2012| url=http://www.usace.army.mil/About/History/HistoricalVignettes/MilitaryConstructionCombat/034Pentagon.aspx}}</ref>
* [[Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan]], first authorized by congress in 1948
* USACE began construction support for [[NASA]] leading to major activities at the [[Manned Spacecraft Center]] and [[Kennedy Space Center]], 1961
* [[King Khalid Military City]] 1973–1987<ref name=thesis>{{cite book|last=smith|first=Jeffery Craig|url=https://apps.dtic.mil/docs/citations/ADA231228 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208151850/https://apps.dtic.mil/docs/citations/ADA231228 |url-status=live |archive-date=8 December 2019 |title=Mega-Project Construction Management: The Corps of Engineers and Bechtel Group in Saudi Arabia |year=1991|publisher=MIT|pages=1}}</ref>
* The [[Water Resources Development Act of 1986]] (WRDA 86) brought major change in financing by requiring non-federal contributions toward most federal water resource projects
* [[Cross Florida Barge Canal]]
* [[Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway]]
Occasional civil disasters, including the [[Great Mississippi Flood of 1927]], resulted in greater responsibilities for the Corps of Engineers. The aftermath of [[Hurricane Katrina]] in [[Effects of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans|New Orleans]] and the [[Francis Scott Key Bridge collapse|collapse of the Francis Scott Key Bridge]] in [[Baltimore]] provide other examples of this.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mitchell |first=Ellen |date=2024-03-28 |title=Army Corps of Engineers to deploy 1,100 personnel to Baltimore |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/4560925-army-corps-of-engineers-to-deploy-1100-personnel-to-baltimore/ |access-date=2024-03-29 |website=The Hill |language=en-US}}</ref>
==Organization==
===Headquarters===
The Chief of Engineers and Commanding General (Lt. general) of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has three mission areas: combat engineers, military construction, and civil works.  For each mission area the Chief of Engineers/Commanding General is supervised by a different person.  For civil works the Commanding General is supervised by the civilian [[Assistant Secretary of the Army (Civil Works)]]. Three deputy commanding generals (major generals) report to the chief of engineers, who have the following titles: Deputy Commanding General, Deputy Commanding General for Civil and Emergency Operation, and Deputy Commanding General for Military and International Operations.<ref name = "Leadership">{{cite web|url=http://www.usace.army.mil/About/Leadership.aspx |title=Headquarters |publisher=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers|access-date=2012-10-22}}</ref> The Corps of Engineers headquarters is located in [[Washington, D.C.]] The headquarters staff is responsible for Corps of Engineers policy and plans the future direction of all other USACE organizations. It comprises the executive office and 17 staff principals. USACE has two civilian directors who head up Military and Civil Works programs in concert with their respective DCG for the mission area.
===Divisions and districts===
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is organized geographically into eight permanent divisions, one provisional division, one provisional district, and one research command reporting directly to the HQ. Within each division, there are several districts.<ref name="locations">{{cite web|url=http://www.usace.army.mil/Locations/ |title=Map -- Headquarters U.S. Army Corps of Engineers |publisher=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers |access-date=2018-04-27}}</ref> Districts are defined by [[drainage basin|watershed]] boundaries for civil works projects and by political boundaries for military projects.
[[File:USACE-District-Map.jpg|center|upright=2.25|thumb|Map of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Civil Engineer divisions and districts]]
* [[Great Lakes and Ohio River Division]] (LRD), located in [[Cincinnati]]. Reaches from the [[St Lawrence Seaway]], across the [[Great Lakes]], down the [[Ohio River Valley]] to the [[Tennessee River|Tennessee]] and [[Cumberland River|Cumberland]] rivers. Covers {{convert|355300|sqmi|km2}}, parts of 17 states. Serves 56 million people. Its seven districts are located in [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], [[Chicago]], [[Detroit]], [[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]], [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], [[Pittsburgh]], and [[Huntington, West Virginia]]. The division commander serves on two national and international decision-making bodies: co-chair of the Lake Superior, Niagara, and Ontario/St Lawrence Seaway boards of control; and the [[Mississippi River Commission]].
* [[Mississippi Valley Division]] (MVD), located in [[Vicksburg, Mississippi]].<ref name=serving/> Reaches from Canada to the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. Covers {{convert|370000|sqmi|km2}}, and portions of 12 states bordering the [[Mississippi River]]. Serves 28 million people. Its six districts are located in [[Saint Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul, Minnesota]], [[Rock Island, Illinois]], [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]], and [[New Orleans]]. MVD serves as headquarters for the Mississippi River Commission.
* [[North Atlantic Division]] (NAD), headquartered at [[Fort Hamilton]] in [[Brooklyn]], New York.<ref name=serving/> Reaches from [[Maine]] to [[Virginia]], including the [[District of Columbia]], with an overseas mission to provide engineering, construction, and project management services to the [[U.S. European Command]] and [[U.S. Africa Command]]. Serves 62 million people. Its six districts are located in New York City, [[Philadelphia]], [[Baltimore]], [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]], [[Concord, Massachusetts]], and [[Wiesbaden]], Germany. NAD has the largest [[Superfund]] program in USACE with 60% of the funding. NAD's [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Europe District|Europe District]] has done work in dozens of countries and has offices in Germany, Belgium, [[Italy]], Turkey, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], Romania, [[Bulgaria]], Israel, Spain, and soon [[Botswana]].
* [[Northwestern Division]] (NWD), located in [[Portland, Oregon]].<ref name=serving/> Reaches from Canada to California, and from the Pacific Ocean to [[Missouri]]. Covers nearly {{convert|1000000|sqmi|km2}} in all or parts of 14 states. Its five districts are located in [[Omaha, Nebraska|Omaha]], [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]], [[Seattle]], [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]], and [[Walla Walla, Washington|Walla Walla]]. NWD has 35% of the total Corps of Engineers' water storage capacity and 75% of the total hydroelectric capacity.
* [[Pacific Ocean Division]] (POD), located at [[Fort Shafter]], Hawaii.<ref name=serving/> Reaches across 12 million square miles of the Pacific Ocean from the [[Arctic Circle]] to [[American Samoa]] below the equator and across the [[International Date Line]], and into Asia. Includes the territories of [[Guam]], [[American Samoa]] and the [[Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands]] as well as the Freely Associated States including the [[Palau|Republic of Palau]], [[Federated States of Micronesia]] and the [[Marshall Islands|Republic of the Marshall Islands]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.poh.usace.army.mil |title=Honolulu District Corps of Engineers |publisher=Poh.usace.army.mil |access-date=2012-10-09}}</ref> Its four districts are located in [[Japan]]; [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]]; [[Anchorage, Alaska]]; and [[Honolulu]]. Unlike other military work, POD designs and builds for all of the military services&nbsp;— Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines&nbsp;— in Japan, Korea, and [[Kwajalein Atoll]].
* [[South Atlantic Division]] (SAD), located in [[Atlanta]].<ref name=serving/> Reaches from [[North Carolina]] to [[Alabama]] as well as the [[Caribbean]], and [[Central America|Central]] and South America. Covers all or parts of six states. Its five districts are located in [[Wilmington, North Carolina]], [[Charleston, South Carolina]], [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]], [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]], and [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]]. One-third of the stateside Army and one-fifth of the stateside Air Force are located within the division boundaries. The largest single environmental restoration project in the world&nbsp;— the [[Restoration of the Everglades|Everglades Restoration]]&nbsp;— is managed by SAD.
* [[South Pacific Division]] (SPD), located in [[San Francisco]].<ref name=serving/> Reaches from California to [[Colorado]] and [[New Mexico]]. Covers all or parts of seven states. Its four districts are located in [[Albuquerque, New Mexico|Albuquerque]], Los Angeles, [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]], and [[San Francisco]]. Its region is host to 18 of the 25 fastest-growing metropolitan areas in the nation.
* [[Southwestern Division]] (SWD), located in [[Dallas]].<ref name=serving/> Reaches from [[Mexico]] to [[Kansas]]. Covers all or part of seven states. Its four districts are located in [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]], [[Tulsa, Oklahoma|Tulsa]], [[Galveston, Texas|Galveston]], and [[Fort Worth, Texas|Fort Worth]]. SWD's recreation areas are the most visited in USACE with more than {{convert|11400|mi|km}} of shoreline and 1,172 recreation sites.
* Transatlantic Division (TAD), located in [[Winchester, Virginia]]. Supports Federal programs and policies overseas. Consists of the Gulf Region District, the Afghanistan Engineer District South, the Afghanistan Engineer District North, the Middle East District, the USACE Deployment Center and the TAD G2 Intelligence Fusion Center. TAD oversees thousands of projects overseas. TAD overseas locations are staffed primarily by civilian volunteers from throughout USACE.<ref name=serving/> The Corps of Engineers built much of Afghanistan's original [[Highway 1 (Afghanistan)|Ring Road]] in the early 1960s and returned in 2002. Supports the full spectrum of regional support, including the Afghan National Security Forces, U.S. and Coalition Forces, Counter Narcotics and Border Management, Strategic Reconstruction support to USAID, and the [[Commander's Emergency Response Program]].
===The Engineer Regiment===
{{see also|Military engineering of the United States}}
U.S. Army engineer units outside of USACE Districts and not listed below fall under the [[Engineer Regiment]] of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which comprises the majority of Army engineer soldiers. The Regiment includes [[combat engineers]], whose duties are to breach obstacles; construct fighting positions, fixed/floating bridges, and obstacles and defensive positions; place and detonate explosives; conduct route clearance operations; emplace and detect landmines; and fight as provisional infantry when required. It also includes support engineers, who are more focused on construction and sustainment. Headquartered at Fort Leonard Wood, MO, the Engineer Regiment is commanded by the Engineer Commandant, currently a position filled by an Army brigadier general.
The Engineer Regiment includes the [[U.S. Army Engineer School]] (USAES) which publishes its mission as: Generate the military engineer capabilities the Army needs: training and certifying Soldiers with the right knowledge, skills, and critical thinking; growing and educating professional leaders; organizing and equipping units; establishing a doctrinal framework for employing capabilities; and remaining an adaptive institution in order to provide Commanders with the freedom of action they need to successfully execute Unified Land Operations.
===Other USACE organizations===
There are several other organizations within the Corps of Engineers:<ref name=org/><ref name=serving/>
* [[Engineer Research and Development Center]] (ERDC)&nbsp;— the Corps of Engineers research and development command. ERDC comprises seven laboratories. (see [[#Research|research]] below)
* U.S. Army Engineering and Support Center (CEHNC)&nbsp;— provides engineering and technical services, program and project management, construction management, and innovative contracting initiatives, for programs that are national or broad in scope or not normally provided by other Corps of Engineers elements
* Finance Center, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (CEFC)&nbsp;— supports the operating finance and accounting functions throughout the Corps of Engineers
* Humphreys Engineer Center Support Activity (HECSA)&nbsp;— provides administrative and operational support for Headquarters, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and various field offices.<ref>[https://www.usace.army.mil/HECSA.aspx Humphreys Engineer Center Support Activity (HECSA)] usace.army.mil</ref>
* [[Army Geospatial Center]] (AGC) &nbsp;— provides [[geospatial]] information, standards, systems, support, and services across the Army and the Department of Defense.
* Marine Design Center (CEMDC)&nbsp;— provides total project management including planning, engineering, and shipbuilding contract management in support of USACE, Army, and national water resource projects in peacetime, and augments the military construction capacity in time of national emergency or mobilization
* [[Institute for Water Resources]] (IWR)&nbsp;— supports the Civil Works Directorate and other Corps of Engineers commands by developing and applying new planning evaluation methods, policies and data in anticipation of changing water resources management conditions.
* USACE Logistics Activity (ULA)- Provides logistics support to the Corps of Engineers including supply, maintenance, readiness, materiel, transportation, travel, aviation, facility management, [[integrated logistics support]], management controls, and strategic planning.
* Enterprise Infrastructure Services (CEEIS)&nbsp;— designs information technology standards for the Corps, including automation, communications, management, visual information, printing, records management, and information assurance. CEEIS outsources the maintenance of its IT services, forming the Army Corps of Engineers Information Technology (ACE-IT). ACE-IT is made up of both civilian government employees and contractors.
* Deployable Tactical Operations System (DTOS)&nbsp;— provides mobile command and control platforms in support of the quick ramp-up of initial emergency response missions for the Corps. DTOS is a system designed to respond to District, Division, National, and International events.
*Until 2001 local Directorates of Engineering and Housing (DEH), being constituents of the USACE, had been responsible for the housing, infrastructure and related tasks as environmental protection, garbage removal and special fire departments or fire alarm coordination centers in the garrisons of the U.S. Army abroad as in Europe (e.g. Germany, as in Berlin, Wiesbaden, Karlsruhe etc.) Subsequently, a similar structure called DPWs (Directorates of Public Works), subordinate to the [[United States Army Installation Management Command]], assumed the tasks formerly done by the DEHs.
===Directly reporting military units===
* [[249th Engineer Battalion (Prime Power)]]&nbsp;— generates and distributes prime [[electric power|electrical power]] in support of fighting wars, disaster relief, stability and support operations as well as provides advice and technical assistance in all aspects of electrical power and distribution systems.
* [[911th Engineer Company]]&nbsp;— (formerly the MDW Engineer Company) provides specialized technical [[search and rescue]] support for the Washington, D.C. [[metropolitan area]]; it is also a vital support member of the [[Joint Force Headquarters National Capital Region]], which is charged with the homeland security of the United States capital region.
* [[412th Engineer Command (United States)|412th Theater Engineer Command]], U.S. Army Reserve, located in Vicksburg, MS.
* [[416th Engineer Command|416th Theater Engineer Command]], U.S. Army Reserve, located in Darien, IL.
==Mission areas==
===Warfighting===
{{See also|Sapper|Combat engineer|Military engineering}}
[[File:20 ENG BDE Bridge.jpg|thumb|20th Engineer Brigade soldiers construct a bridge on the [[Euphrates River]].]]
USACE provides support directly and indirectly to the warfighting effort.<ref>[http://www.usace.army.mil/missions/warfighting.html USACE Warfighting Mission webpage] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913145536/http://www.usace.army.mil/missions/warfighting.html |date=13 September 2008 }}</ref> They build and help maintain much of the [[infrastructure]] that the Army and the Air Force use to train, house, and deploy [[troop]]s. USACE built and maintained [[navigation]] systems and ports provide the means to [[Deployments of the United States Military|deploy]] vital equipment and other material. Corps of Engineers Research and Development (R&D) facilities help develop new methods and measures for deployment, force protection, terrain analysis, mapping, and other support.
USACE directly supports the military in the battle zone, making expertise available to [[commander]]s to help solve or avoid engineering (and other) problems. Forward Engineer Support Teams, FEST-A's or FEST-M's, may accompany combat engineers to provide immediate support, or to reach electronically into the rest of USACE for the necessary expertise. A FEST-A team is an eight-person detachment; a FEST-M is approximately 36. These teams are designed to provide immediate technical-engineering support to the warfighter or in a disaster area. Corps of Engineers' professionals use the knowledge and skills honed on both military and civil projects to support the U.S. and local communities in the areas of real estate, contracting, mapping, construction, logistics, engineering, and management experience. Prior to their respective troop withdrawals in 2021, this included support for rebuilding [[Iraq]], establishing infrastructure in [[Afghanistan]], and supporting international and inter-agency services.
In addition, the work of almost 26,000 civilians on civil-works programs throughout USACE provides a training ground for similar capabilities worldwide. USACE civilians volunteer for assignments worldwide. For example, [[hydropower]] experts have helped repair, renovate, and run hydropower dams in Iraq in an effort to help get Iraqis to become self-sustaining.<ref name=serving>From ''Serving The Armed Forces and The Nation'' 2007 edition (October 2007), and data from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers</ref><ref>[http://www.hq.usace.army.mil/cepa/pubs/jan08/story2.htm ''Engineer Update'' Story on Iraqi Hydropower]{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
===Homeland security===
USACE supports the United States' [[Department of Homeland Security]] and the [[Federal Emergency Management Agency]] (FEMA) through its security planning, force protection, research and development, [[disaster]] preparedness efforts, and quick response to emergencies and disasters.<ref>[http://www.usace.army.mil/missions/Security.html USACE Homeland Security Mission webpage] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216234240/http://www.usace.army.mil/missions/Security.html |date=16 December 2008 }}</ref>
The CoE conducts its emergency response activities under two basic authorities&nbsp;— the Flood Control and Coastal Emergency Act ({{USPL|84|99}}), and the [[Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act]] ({{USPL|93|288}}). In a typical year, the Corps of Engineers responds to more than 30 Presidential disaster declarations, plus numerous state and local emergencies. Emergency responses usually involve cooperation with other military elements and Federal agencies in support of State and local efforts.
===Infrastructure support===
[[File:HESCOBarrierAssembleFargoMar2409.JPG|thumb|Soldiers assembling sections of a [[Hesco bastion|HESCO collapsible barrier]] device in [[Fargo, North Dakota]]]]
Work comprises engineering and management support to military installations, global real estate support, civil works support (including risk and priorities), operations and maintenance of Federal navigation and flood control projects, and monitoring of dams and levees.<ref>[http://www.usace.army.mil/missions/infrastructure.html USACE Infrastructure Mission webpage] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014175133/http://www.usace.army.mil/missions/infrastructure.html |date=14 October 2008 }}</ref>
More than 67 percent of the goods consumed by Americans and more than half of the nation's oil imports are processed through [[list of deep water ports|deepwater ports]] maintained by the Corps of Engineers, which maintains more than {{convert|12000|mi|km}} of commercially navigable channels across the U.S.
In both its Civil Works mission and Military Construction program, the Corps of Engineers is responsible for billions of dollars of the nation's infrastructure. For example, USACE maintains direct control of 609 dams, maintains or operates 257 navigation locks, and operates 75 hydroelectric facilities generating 24% of the nation's hydropower and three percent of its total electricity. USACE inspects over 2,000 Federal and non-Federal levees every two years.
Four billion gallons of water per day are drawn from the Corps of Engineers' 136 multi-use flood control projects comprising {{convert|9800000|acre.ft|km3|lk=in}} of water storage, making it one of the United States' largest water supply agencies.<ref name=serving/>
The [[249th Engineer Battalion (Prime Power)]], the only active duty unit in USACE, generates and distributes prime electrical power in support of warfighting, disaster relief, stability and support operations as well as provides advice and technical assistance in all aspects of electrical power and distribution systems. The battalion deployed in support of recovery operations after [[9/11]] and was instrumental in getting Wall Street back up and running within a week.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wood.army.mil/ENGRMAG/Disaster%20Relief%20PDFs/Pung.pdf |title=''Engineer Magazine'' article "Disaster Relief" |access-date=2012-10-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624221751/http://www.wood.army.mil/ENGRMAG/Disaster%20Relief%20PDFs/Pung.pdf |archive-date=24 June 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The battalion also deployed in support of post-Katrina operations.
All of this work represents a significant investment in the nation's resources.
===Water resources===
{{See also|Army engineer diver}}
[[File:MV Gelberman USACE Hudson with debris jeh.jpg|thumb|Removing a hazard to navigation on the [[Hudson River]]]]
[[File:Linthicum surveys channels near Fort McHenry.jpg|thumb|The survey vessel ''Linthicum'' in a channel near [[Fort McHenry]]; the ball-diamond-ball [[day shape]] displayed indicates a vessel restricted in its ability to maneuver. ]]
Through its Civil Works program, USACE carries out a wide array of projects that provide coastal protection, flood protection, hydropower, navigable waters and ports, recreational opportunities, and water supply.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/waterresources/programs.cfm |title=USACE Institute for Water Resources: Programs Overview |publisher=Iwr.usace.army.mil |access-date=2012-10-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617224026/http://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/waterresources/programs.cfm |archive-date=17 June 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Carter |first1=Nicole T. |title=Army Corps of Engineers: Water Resource Authorization and Project Delivery Processes |date=1 June 2018 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, DC |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R45185.pdf |access-date=5 June 2018}}</ref> Work includes coastal protection and restoration, including a new emphasis on a more [[holism|holistic]] approach to risk management. As part of this work, USACE is the number one provider of outdoor recreation in the U.S., so there is a significant emphasis on water safety.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}
Army involvement in works "of a civil nature," including water resources, goes back almost to the origins of the U.S. Over the years, as the nation's needs have changed, so have the Army's Civil Works missions.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}
Major areas of emphasis include the following:
* Navigation. Supporting navigation by maintaining and improving channels was the Corps of Engineers' earliest Civil Works mission, dating to [[Federal law]]s in 1824 authorizing the Corps to improve safety on the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers and several ports. Today, the Corps of Engineers maintains more than {{convert|12000|mi|km}} of inland waterways and operates 235 locks. These waterways—a system of rivers, lakes and coastal bays improved for commercial and recreational transportation—carry about {{frac|1|6}} of the nation's inter-city freight, at a cost per ton-mile about {{frac|1|2}} that of rail or {{frac|1|10}} that of trucks. USACE also maintains 300 commercial harbors, through which pass {{convert|2000000000|ST|metric ton}} of cargo a year, and more than 600 smaller harbors. New locks are needed, according to the Corps and barge shippers, where existing locks are in poor condition, requiring frequent closures for repairs, and/or because a lock's size causes delays for barge tows.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Frittelli |first1=John |title=Prioritizing Waterway Lock Projects: Barge Traffic Changes |date=1 June 2018 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |location=Washington, DC |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R45211.pdf |access-date=8 June 2018}}</ref>
* Flood Risk Management. The Engineers were first called upon to address flood problems along the Mississippi river in the mid-19th century. They began work on the Mississippi River and Tributaries Flood Control Project in 1928, and the [[Flood Control Act of 1936]] gave the Corps the mission to provide flood protection to the entire country.
* Recreation. The Corps of Engineers is the nation's largest provider of outdoor recreation, operating more than 2,500 recreation areas at 463 projects (mostly lakes) and leasing an additional 1,800 sites to state or local park and recreation authorities or private interests. USACE hosts about 260 million visits<ref>{{Cite web |title=Civil Works Recreation |url=https://www.usace.army.mil/Missions/Civil-Works/Recreation/ |access-date=2024-07-12 |website=www.usace.army.mil}}</ref> a year at its lakes, beaches and other areas, and estimates that 25&nbsp;million Americans (one in ten) visit a Corps' project at least once a year. Supporting visitors to these recreation areas generates 600,000 jobs.
* [[Hydroelectric]] Power. The Corps of Engineers was first authorized to build hydroelectric plants in the 1920s, and today operates 75 power plants, producing one fourth of the nation's hydro-electric power—or three percent of its total electric energy. This makes USACE the fifth largest electric supplier in the United States.
* Shore Protection. With a large proportion of the U.S. population living near our sea and lake shores, and an estimated 75% of U.S. vacations being spent at the beach, there has been Federal interest&nbsp;— and a Corps of Engineers mission&nbsp;— in protecting these areas from hurricane and coastal storm damage.
* Dam Safety. The Corps of Engineers develops engineering criteria for safe dams, and conducts an active inspection program of its own dams.<ref name=serving/>
* Water Supply. The Corps first got involved in water supply in the 1850s, when they built the [[Washington Aqueduct]]. Today USACE reservoirs supply water to nearly 10 million people in 115 cities. In the drier parts of the Nation, water from Corps reservoirs is also used for agriculture.<ref name=history/><ref name=serving/><ref>[http://www.hq.usace.army.mil/history USACE History webpage] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060319204716/http://www.hq.usace.army.mil/history/ |date=19 March 2006 }}</ref>
* Water Safety. The Corps of Engineers has taken an interest in recreational water safety, with current initiatives for increasing the use rate of life jackets and preventing the use of alcohol while boating.
===Environment===
[[File:Martis Creek Wetland Project, California.jpg|thumb|The [[Martis Creek]] Wetland Project in [[California]]]]
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers environmental mission has two major focus areas: restoration and [[stewardship]]. The Corps supports and manages numerous environmental programs, that run the gamut from cleaning up areas on former military installations contaminated by [[hazardous waste]] or munitions to helping establish/reestablish [[wetlands]] that helps [[endangered species]] survive.<ref name=Enviro>[http://www.usace.army.mil/missions/environment.html USACE Environmental Mission webpage] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218221846/http://www.usace.army.mil/missions/environment.html |date=18 December 2008 }}</ref> Some of these programs include Ecosystem Restoration, Formerly Used Defense Sites, Environmental Stewardship, EPA [[Superfund]], Abandoned Mine Lands, [[Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program]], [[Base Realignment and Closure, 2005]], and Regulatory.
This mission includes education as well as regulation and cleanup.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has an active environmental program under both its Military and Civil Programs.<ref name="Enviro" />
The Civil Works environmental mission that ensures all USACE projects, facilities and associated lands meet environmental standards. The program has four functions: compliance, restoration, prevention, and conservation. The Corps also regulates all work in wetlands and waters of the United States.
The Military Programs Environmental Program manages design and execution of a full range of cleanup and protection activities:
[[File:Test Pit, USACE.jpg|right|thumb|A member of the Radiation Safety Support Team, wearing a [[hazmat suit]], tests excavated soil.]]
* cleans up sites contaminated with hazardous waste, radioactive waste, or ordnance
* complies with federal, state, and local environmental laws and regulations
* strives to minimize our use of hazardous materials
* conserves our natural and cultural resources
The following are major areas of environmental emphasis:
* Wetlands and Waterways Regulation and Permitting
* Ecosystem Restoration
* Environmental Stewardship
* Radioactive site cleanup through the Formerly Used Sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP)
* [[Base Realignment and Closure]] (BRAC)
* Formerly Used Defense Sites (FUDS)
* Support to EPA's Superfund Program
See also [[#Environmental protection and regulatory program|Environmental Enforcement]] below.
=== Sustainability ===
The Army adopted a sustainability policy in the early 2000s to make military bases, and the force as a whole, more resilient and less dependent on fossil fuels. Since the US military is one of the world's largest institutional energy consumers, this would have a significant impact on reducing waste, improving efficiency, and ensuring that public resources are used effectively.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2007-05-20|title=US military energy consumption- facts and figures|url=https://www.resilience.org/stories/2007-05-21/us-military-energy-consumption-facts-and-figures/|access-date=2020-12-17|website=Resilience|language=en-US |first1=Sohbet |last1=Karbuz }}</ref>
The Army has developed and adopted its own [[triple bottom line]] framework shifting from the traditional "People Planet, and Profit" to "Mission, Community, and Environment". To meet these new sustainability targets, it has implemented regulations such as designing all new projects to meet the [[Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design|LEED]] silver standard. Additional regulations are detailed in the Sustainable Design and Development Policy.
The 2017 revision to the Sustainable Design and Development Policy outlines the updated goals and requirements the Army established in an effort to successfully complete the sustainability mission.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Army Sustainable Design and Development Policy Update|url=https://www.wbdg.org/FFC/ARMYCOE/POLICY/Army_SDD_Policy_Update_2017.pdf |website=Whole Building Design Guide }}</ref> Most of these requirements result in stricter regulations on the planning, design and construction of new projects and major renovations:
* Siting and site development
* Energy performance and security
* Indoor and outdoor water use
* Metering, monitoring, and subsystem measurement
* Indoor environmental quality
* Waste and recyclables management
* New and underused technologies
* Commissioning and plans for operation
Many of these goals fall directly onto USACE, as it oversees most construction and maintenance of Army bases and infrastructure. To embrace the branch's movement toward sustainability, USACE added sustainability as an overarching mission with several specific focus areas:
* Gaining expertise and becoming a leader in industry technology and advancement; primarily in areas surrounding construction and energy to enable high-performance buildings and civil works projects, as well as energy security
* Planning and implementing a number of approaches to mitigate the potential environmental changes due to the climate crisis specifically with regard to the nation's water infrastructure
* Focusing on purchases that further the sustainability mission and prioritizing designs/technology that are recycled, bio-based, or benefit the environment
* Releasing annual Sustainability Report and Implementation Plans for accountability and to track progress toward achieving energy goals
This challenge is not without its difficulties. The first report issued in 2008 showed that 78% of new projects were built to the LEED silver standard (without actually getting the certification) instead of the 100% required. In addition, there was an 8.4% and 32% reduction in energy use intensity and water use, respectively, and a 35% increase in hazardous waste production.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2008-11-17|title=U.S. Army Releases First Sustainability Report - Big Move To LEED Standards|url=https://www.environmentalleader.com/2008/11/us-army-releases-first-sustainability-report-big-move-to-leed-standards/|access-date=2020-12-17|website=Environment + Energy Leader|language=en-US |first1=Jennifer |last1=Nastu }}</ref>
Later reports show some improvement toward resilience and sustainability. The 2020 Sustainability Report and Implementation Plan show a further 12% reduction in water use as well as 35% total reduction in energy use intensity since 2003. Future projections show that USACE intends to continue to build on these focus areas and drive down its demands in areas such as fuel, electricity and water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sustainability Report and Implementation Plan 2020 |website=Office of the Federal Chief Sustainability Officer |publisher=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers |date=30 June 2020 |url=https://www.sustainability.gov/pdfs/usace-2020-sustainability-plan.pdf|access-date=17 December 2020|archive-date=2 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210302105114/https://www.sustainability.gov/pdfs/usace-2020-sustainability-plan.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
==Operational facts and figures==
Summary of facts and figures as of 2007, provided by the Corps of Engineers:<ref name=serving/>{{update needed|date=September 2024}}
* One HQ, 8 Divisions, 2 Provisional Division, 45 Districts, 6 Centers, one active-duty unit, 2 Engineer Reserve Command
* At work in more than 90 countries
* Supports 159 Army installations and 91 Air Force installations
* Owns and operates 609 dams
* Owns or operates 257 navigation lock chambers at 212 sites
* Largest owner-operator of hydroelectric plants in the US.  Owns and operates 75 plants—24% of U.S. hydropower capacity (3% of the total U.S. electric capacity)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://operations.sam.usace.army.mil/Hydropower/ |title=Hydropower |publisher=Operations Division, Mobile District, US Army Corps of Engineers |access-date=2012-10-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109014147/http://operations.sam.usace.army.mil/Hydropower/ |archive-date=9 January 2009}}</ref>
* Operates and maintains {{convert|12000|mi|km}} of commercial inland navigation channels
* Maintains 926 coast, Great Lakes, and inland harbors
* Dredge {{convert|255000000|cuyd|m3}} annually for construction or maintenance
* Nation's ''number one provider of outdoor recreation'' with more than 368 million visits annually to 4,485 sites at 423 USACE projects (383 major lakes and reservoirs)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/fact-sheet/public-facilities-public-parks-and-recreation |title=Public Parks and Recreation |publisher=Infrastructure Report Card |access-date=2012-10-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225105936/http://www.infrastructurereportcard.org/fact-sheet/public-facilities-public-parks-and-recreation |archive-date=25 February 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Total water supply storage capacity of {{convert|329900000|acre.ft|km3|lk=in}}
* Average annual damages prevented by Corps flood risk management projects (1995–2004) of $21&nbsp;billion (see "Civil works controversies" below)
* Approximately 137 environmental protection projects under construction (September 2006 figure)
* Approximately {{convert|38700|acre|m2}} of wetlands restored, created, enhanced, or preserved annually under the Corps' Regulatory Program
* Approximately $4&nbsp;billion in technical services to 70 non-DoD Federal agencies annually
* Completed (and continuing work on) thousands of infrastructure projects in Iraq at an estimated cost over $9&nbsp;billion: school projects (324,000 students), crude oil production {{convert|3|Moilbbl/d|m3/d}}, potable water projects (3.9&nbsp;million people (goal 5.2&nbsp;million)), fire stations, border posts, prison/courthouse improvements, transportation/communication projects, village road/expressways, railroad stations, postal facilities, and aviation projects. More than 90 percent of the USACE construction contracts have been awarded to Iraqi-owned businesses&nbsp;— offering employment opportunities, boosting the economy, providing jobs, and training, promoting stability and security where before there was none. Consequently, the mission is a central part of the U.S. exit strategy.
* The Corps of Engineers has one of the strongest Small Business Programs in the Army—Each year, approximately 33% of all contract dollars are obligated with Small Businesses, Small Disadvantaged Businesses, Service Disabled Veteran Owned Small Businesses, Women Owned Small Businesses, Historically Underutilized Business Zones, and Historically Black Colleges and Universities. Jackie Robinson-Burnette was named the Chief of the Corps' Small Business Program in May 2010. The program is managed through an integrated network of over 60 Small Business Advisors, 8 Division Commanders, 4 Center Directors, and 45 District Commanders.
<!--- This section is commented out until it can be reconfigured to be a concise narrative, instead of a space-consuming list of public laws that have no description of their content consistent with an encyclopedia. PLEASE SEE DISCUSSION PAGE, before reinstating material in a manner consistent with Wikipedia.
==Public Laws affecting the Corps of Engineers==
[[File:Corps of Engineers Budge Hearing 20 March 2007.jpg|right|thumb|Subcommittee on Transportation and Infrastructure Hearing on Water Resources Needs and the President's Budget Proposal for the Army Corps of Engineers for Fiscal Year 2008, March 2007]]
The Corps of Engineers' work is specifically authorized by Congress, either for an individual project or for a specific class of projects. See the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers#Controversies|Controversies]] section above about how the Congressional authorization process adds to the controversial nature of some projects. Some of the specific laws affecting work done by the Corps include:<ref>U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Civil Works Pocket Reference, Prepared by the Institute for Water Resources, 1998</ref>
===Regulatory program===
* ''Navigation Safety and Improvements'': The Corps of Engineers has primary responsibility for the development and management of navigable waterways, granted by the [[Rivers and Harbors Act of 1917]]. In doing so, it is responsible for the disposition of dredged materials and protection of marine habitats through a permit process that it administers under provisions the [[Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899]], the [[Clean Water Act]] of 1972, and the [[Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act]] of 1972.
===Emergency response===
[[File:Kansas City District Corps of Engineers inspects Little Blue River at Swope Parkway 2007.jpg|right|thumb|Project manager with the Kansas City District U.S. Army Corps of Engineers inspects the Little Blue River at Swope Parkway, 2007.]]
* [[Flood Control and Coastal Emergency Act]], {{USPL|84|99}}
* [[Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act]], {{USPL|93|288}}
* Separately from any {{USPL|84|99}} authorization, FEMA may also mission assign USACE for flood emergency response under the [[National Response Framework]], which replaced the [[National Response Plan]] in 2008.
===Flood control===
* Structural Flood Control
** [[Flood Control Act of 1928]], which holds USACE exempt from financial liability should their flood control structures fail
** Sec 1 and 3, [[Flood Control Act of 1936]] (FCA 1936), {{USPL|74|738}}
** Sec 2, [[Flood Control Act of 1941|FCA 1941]], {{USPL|77|228}}
** Sec 103, [[Water Resources Development Act of 1986]] (WRDA 1986), {{USPL|99|662}}
** Sec 202(a), [[Water Resources Development Act of 1996|WRDA 1996]], {{USPL|104|303}}
* Non-Structural Flood Control
** Sec 73, [[Water Resources Development Act of 1974|WRDA 1974]], {{USPL|93|251}}
** Sec 103(b), WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
** Sec 202(a), WRDA 1996, {{USPL|104|303}}
* Flood Control, "Section 205"
** Sec 205, [[Flood Control Act of 1948|FCA 1948]], {{USPL|80|858}}. This is a continuing authority that does not need further specific authorization (within limits).
** Sec 202, WRDA 1996, {{USPL|104|303}}
* Flood Control, Clearing and Snagging
** Sec 208, [[Flood Control Act of 1954|FCA 1954]], {{USPL|83|780}}, as amended. This is a continuing authority that does not need further specific authorization (within limits).
** Sec 202, WRDA 1996, {{USPL|104|303}}
* Emergency Flood Control
** Sec 5a, [[Flood Control Act of 1941|FCA 1941]], as amended
** [[Flood Control and Coastal Emergency Act]] of 1955, {{USPL|84|99}}
** [[Rivers and Harbors Act of 1962]], {{USPL|87|874}}
** [[Safe Drinking Water Act]] of 1974, {{USPL|93|523}}
** {{USPL|95|51}}
** Sec 917, WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
** Sec 302, [[Water Resources Development Act of 1990|WRDA 1990]], {{USPL|101|640}}
** Sec 204(e), WRDA 1996, {{USPL|104|303}}
* Flood Control, Flood Plain Management Services
** Sec 206, [[Flood Control Act of 1960|FCA 1960]], {{USPL|86|845}} as amended
===Hurricane and storm damage reduction===
[[File:Distribution for Hurricane Andrew 1992, Corps of Engineers.jpg|right|U.S. Army Corps of Engineers personnel distribute supplies for [[Hurricane Andrew]] victims in 1992]]
* Shore Protection, General Authority
** [[Shore Protection Cost Sharing Act of 1946]], {{USPL|79|727}} as amended
** Sec 103(c)(5) and (d), WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
** Sec 14, [[Water Resources Development Act of 1988|WRDA 1988]], {{USPL|100|676}}
* Shore Protection, Periodic Nourishment
** [[Beach Nourishment]] Act of 1956, {{USPL|84|826}}
* Shore Protection "Section 103"
** Sec 103, [[Rivers and Harbors Act of 1962]], {{USPL|87|874}}
** Sec 103(c), 103(d), 103(i), 915(e), WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
===Ecosystem restoration and protection===
* General
** [[Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958]], {{USPL|85|624}}
** [[Federal Water Project Recreation Act of 1958]]
** [[National Environmental Policy Act]] (NEPA) of 1969
** [[Coastal Zone Management Act]] of 1972
** [[Clean Water Act]] of 1972
** [[Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972]]
** [[Endangered Species Act]] of 1973
** [[Water Resources Development Act]]s of 1986, 1990, 1992, and 1996
** [[Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection, and Restoration Act of 1990]]
** [[wikisource:Executive Order 11990|Executive Order 11990]], "The Protection of Wetlands"
** [[wikisource:Executive Order 11991|Executive Order 11991]], "Relating to Protection and Enhancement of Environmental Quality"
* Project Modification for Environment Improvements within the Civil Works Program
** Sec 1135, WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
* Beneficial Use of Dredged Material
** Sec 204, [[Water Resources Development Act of 1992|WRDA 1992]]
* Aquatic Restoration
** Sec 206, WRDA 1996, {{USPL|104|303}}
* Fish and Wildlife Mitigation
** Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1958, {{USPL|85|624}}
** Sec 103(c) and 906, WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
* Flow Regulation
** Sec 102, [[Clean Water Act]] of 1972, {{USPL|92|500}} as amended
** Sec 103(c) and (d), WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
* Aquatic Plant Control
** Sec 104, [[Rivers and Harbors Act of 1958]], {{USPL|85|500}} as amended
** Sec 103(c)(6) and 941, WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}. This is a continuing authority that does not need further specific authorization (within limits).
** Sec 225 and 540, WRDA 1996, {{USPL|104|303}}
===General navigation===
[[File:Mississipi River - New Orleans.JPG|right|thumb|Mississippi River in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]], 2006]]
Stems from the Commerce clause of the U.S. Constitution and U.S. Supreme Court decisions. the Corps mission is considered to have begun in 1824 when funds were appropriated to clear snags from the [[Ohio River|Ohio]] and [[Mississippi River]]s. Specific Project Authorizations:
* Harbor Navigation
** Sec 101 and 214, WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
** Sec 13, [[Water Resources Development Act of 1988|WRDA 1988]], {{USPL|100|676}}
** Sec 201, WRDA 1996, {{USPL|104|303}}
* Harbor Navigation, Disposal Partnerships
** Sec 217, WRDA 1996, {{USPL|104|303}}
* Inland Waterways Navigation, Locks and Dams
** Sec 102, WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
** Sec 206, [[Inland Waterways Revenue Act of 1978]], {{USPL|95|500}} as amended by Sec 1405, WRDA 1986
* Navigation, Small Navigation Projects
** Sec 107, [[Rivers and Harbors Act of 1960]], {{USPL|86|845}}. This is a continuing authority that does not need further specific authorization (within limits).
** [[Flood Control Act of 1944|FCA 1944]], {{USPL|78|534}}
* Navigation, Clearing and Snagging
** Sec 3, [[Rivers and Harbors Act of 1945]], {{USPL|79|14}} as amended. This is a continuing authority that does not need further specific authorization (within limits).
* Navigation, Mitigation of Damages (includes [[beach nourishment]]):
** Sec 111, [[Rivers and Harbors Act of 1968]], {{USPL|90|483}} as amended. This is a continuing authority that does not need further specific authorization (within limits).
** Sec 940, WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
* Navigation, Recreation
** Sec 103(c)(4), WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
===Emergency streambank and shore protection===
* "Section 14" Authority
** Sec 14, [[Flood Control Act of 1946|FCA 1946]], {{USPL|79|526}} as amended
** Sec 27, WRDA 1974, {{USPL|93|251}}
** Sec 915(c), WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
** Sec 219, WRDA 1996, {{USPL|104|303}}. This is a continuing authority that does not need further specific authorization (within limits).
===Hydroelectric power===
[[File:Lavondam.jpg|right|thumb|[[Lavon Lake]], located in [[Wylie, Texas]], part of the Fort Worth District]]
* General
** various Congressional statutes
** Sec 5, FCA 1944, {{USPL|78|534}}
** Sec 703, WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
* Facilities for Future Power Installations
** Sec 4, [[Flood Control Act of 1938|FCA 1938]], {{USPL|75|761}} and subsequent authorizing acts
** [[Flood Control Act of 1936|FCA 1936]]
** [[Federal Power Act of 1920|FCA 1920]]
===Water supply storage===
* General
** Water Supply Act of 1958, {{USPL|85|500}} as amended
** {{USPL|88|140}}
** Sec 932, WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
* Surplus Water
** Sec 6, FCA 1944, {{USPL|78|534}}
* Minor Emergency Withdrawals
** Sec 6, FCA 1944, {{USPL|78|534}}
===Recreation===
* Reservoir Projects
** Sec 4, FCA 1944, {{USPL|78|534}}
** Federal Water Project Recreation Act of 1965, {{USPL|89|72}} as amended
** Sec 103(c)(4), WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
** Sec 2804, [[Reclamation Projects Authorization and Adjustments Act of 1992]], {{USPL|102-575}}
* Non-Reservoir Projects
** Sec 4, FCA 1944, {{USPL|78|534}}
** Federal Water Project Recreation Act of 1965, {{USPL|89|72}} as amended
** Sec 103(c)(4), WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
** Sec 313, WRDA 1990, {{USPL|101|640}}
===Dam safety assurance===
* Sec 1203, WRDA 1986, {{USPL|99|662}}
* Sec 215, WRDA 1996, {{USPL|104|303}}
===Other related laws===
* [[Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act]], {{USPL|101|601}}, {{USStat|104|3048}}
* [[Endangered Species Act]]
* [[National Historic Preservation Act]]
* [[Wild and Scenic Rivers Act]]
* [[Abandoned Shipwrecks Act]]
* Anadromous Fish Conservation Act
* [[Coastal Barrier Resources Act|Coastal Barrier Resources Act of 1982]]
* [[Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection and Restoration Act]]
* Coastal Zone Protection Act of 1996
* [[Coastal Zone Management Act]]
* Deepwater Port Act of 1974
* [[Emergency Wetlands Resources Act]]
* [[Environmental Quality Improvement Act]]
* Federal Water Project Recreation Act
* [[Food Security Act of 1985]]
* Various [[Flood Control Act]]s
* [[Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965]]
* [[Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972|Marine Mammal Protection Act]]
* [[North American Wetlands Conservation Act]]
* Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Control Act of 1990
* Reservoir Areas-Forest Cover
* Various [[Rivers and Harbors Act]]s
* [[Safe Drinking Water Act]]
* Submerged Land Act
* Sustainable Fisheries Act
End of commented out material --->
==Environmental protection and regulatory program==
The regulatory program is authorized to protect the nation's aquatic resources. USACE personnel evaluate permit applications for essentially all construction activities that occur in the nation's waters, including wetlands.  Two primary authorities granted to the Army Corps of Engineers by Congress fall under Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act and Section 404 of the Clean Water Act.
Section 10 of the [[Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899]] (codified in Chapter 33, Section 403 of the [[United States Code]]) gave the Corps authority over [[Navigability|navigable]] waters of the United States, defined as "those waters that are subject to the ebb and flow of the tide and/or are presently being used, or have been used in the past, or may be susceptible for use to transport interstate or foreign commerce."  Section 10 covers construction, excavation, or deposition of materials in, over, or under such waters, or any work that would affect the course, location, condition or capacity of those waters. Actions requiring section 10 permits include structures (e.g., piers, wharfs, breakwaters, bulkheads, jetties, weirs, transmission lines) and work such as dredging or disposal of dredged material, or excavation, filling or other modifications to the navigable waters of the United States. The Coast Guard also has responsibility for permitting the erection or modification of bridges over navigable waters of the U.S.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}
Another of the major responsibilities of the Army Corps of Engineers is administering the permitting program under Section 404 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, also known as the [[Clean Water Act]]. The Secretary of the Army is authorized under this act to issue permits for the discharge of dredged and fill material in waters of the United States, including adjacent wetlands.<ref name=serving/> The geographic extent of waters of the United States subject to section 404 permits fall under a broader definition and include tributaries to navigable waters and adjacent wetlands.  The engineers must first determine if the waters at the project site are jurisdictional and subject to the requirements of the section 404 permitting program. Once jurisdiction has been established, permit review and authorization follows a sequence process that encourages avoidance of impacts, followed by minimizing impacts and, finally, requiring mitigation for unavoidable impacts to the aquatic environment. This sequence is described in the section 404(b)(1) guidelines.
There are three types of permits issued by the Corps of Engineers: Nationwide, Regional General, and Individual. 80% of the permits issued are nationwide permits, which include 50 general type of activities for minimal impacts to waters of the United States, as published in the Federal Register.  Nationwide permits are subject to a reauthorization process every 5 years, with the most recent reauthorization occurring in March, 2012. To gain authorization under a nationwide permit, an applicant must comply with the terms and conditions of the nationwide permit.  Select nationwide permits require preconstruction notification to the applicable corps district office notifying them of his or her intent, type and amount of impact and fill in waters, and a site map. Although the nationwide process is fairly simple, corps approval must be obtained before commencing with any work in waters of the United States. Regional general permits are specific to each corps district office. Individual permits are generally required for projects that impact greater than {{convert|0.5|acres|m2}} of waters of the United States.  Individual permits are required for activities that result in more than minimal impacts to the aquatic environment.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}
==Research==
The Corps of Engineers has two research organizations, the [[Engineer Research and Development Center]] (ERDC) and the [[Army Geospatial Center]] (AGC).
ERDC provides science, technology, and expertise in engineering and environmental sciences to support both military and civilian customers. ERCD research support includes:
* [[Dam safety system]]s
* [[Cartography|Mapping]] and [[topography]] terrain analysis
* [[Infrastructure]] design, construction, operations and maintenance
* [[Structural engineering]]
* [[CRREL|Cold-regions science and engineering]]
* Coastal and [[hydraulic engineering]], producing products such as [[HEC-RAS]]
* Environmental quality, including toxic chemistry of [[bay mud]] and other dredge spoils
* [[Geotechnical engineering]]
* [[Earthquake engineering]]
* High performance computing and information technology
AGC coordinates, integrates, and synchronizes geospatial information requirements and standards across the Army and provides direct geospatial support and products to warfighters. See also Geospatial Information Officer.
==Insignia==
{{main|Corps Castle}}
[[File:Castle-gold.jpg|thumb|The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers gold castle branch insignia, worn by engineer officers]]
The Corps of Engineers branch insignia, the [[Corps Castle]], is believed to have originated on an informal basis. In 1841, cadets at West Point wore insignia of this type. In 1902, the Castle was formally adopted by the Corps of Engineers as branch insignia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hq.usace.army.mil/history/vignettes/Vignette_90.htm |title= Do You Know? The Corps Castle Can Be Found in Unusual Places?  |website=Office of History, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers |access-date=2006-03-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060329154834/http://www.hq.usace.army.mil/history/vignettes/Vignette_90.htm |archive-date=29 March 2006}}</ref> The "castle" is actually the Pershing Barracks at the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sites.google.com/site/militaryscienceandleadership/Home/spring-2009/branch-ebook |title=Branch eBook |website=Military Science and Leadership |access-date=2012-10-09 |archive-date=17 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517213731/http://sites.google.com/site/militaryscienceandleadership/Home/spring-2009/branch-ebook |url-status=dead }}</ref>
A current tradition was established with the "[[Gold Castles]]" branch insignia of General of the Army [[Douglas MacArthur]], West Point Class of 1903, who served in the Corps of Engineers early in his career and had received the two pins as a graduation gift of his family. In 1945, near the conclusion of World War II, General MacArthur gave his personal pins to his Chief Engineer, General [[Leif J. Sverdrup]]. On 2 May 1975, upon the 200th anniversary of the Corps of Engineers, retired General Sverdrup, who had [[civil engineer]]ing projects including the landmark {{convert|17|mi|km|0|adj=on}}-long [[Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel]] to his credit, presented the Gold Castles to then-[[Chief of Engineers]] Lieutenant General [[William C. Gribble, Jr.]], who had also served under General MacArthur in the Pacific. General Gribble then announced a tradition of passing the insignia along to future Chiefs of Engineers, and it has been done so since.<ref>{{cite web |website=Office of History, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers |url=http://www.hq.usace.army.mil/history/vignettes/Vignette_89.htm |title= Do You Know? The History of the Chief of Engineers' Gold Castles?  |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060111042808/http://www.hq.usace.army.mil/history/Vignettes/Vignette_89.htm |archive-date=11 January 2006 }}</ref>
==Controversies==
===Civil works===
{{Main|U.S. Army Corps of Engineers civil works controversies}}
[[File:Secretary Harvey and Brig. Gen. Crear, Oct. 2 2006, in New Orleans.jpg|thumb|[[United States Secretary of the Army|U.S. Secretary of the Army]] [[Francis J. Harvey]] (on right) discusses U.S. Army Corps of Engineers operations in [[New Orleans]] with Brigadier General Robert Crear, commander of the Mississippi Valley Division in 2006]]
Some of the Corps of Engineers' civil works projects have been characterized in the press as being [[pork barrel]] or [[boondoggle (project)|boondoggles]] such as the [[New Madrid Floodway Project]] and the New Orleans flood protection.<ref>{{cite web|last=Grunwald |first=Michael |url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1646611_1646683_1648904,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070827053327/http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1646611_1646683_1648904,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 August 2007 |title=The Threatening Storm - Hurricane Katrina - Two Years Later |publisher=Time |date=2007-08-02 |access-date=2012-10-09}}</ref><ref>[http://www.stltoday.com/stltoday/news/stories.nsf/missouristatenews/story/AFF2AC0B5A2C828C8625735A0073D4FD?OpenDocument ''St Louis Today'', Missouri State News] {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Projects have allegedly been justified based on flawed or manipulated analyses during the planning phase. Some projects are said to have created profound detrimental environmental effects or provided questionable economic benefit such as the [[Mississippi River–Gulf Outlet]] in southeast Louisiana.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mrgomustgo.org/ |title=Close the Mississippi River Gulf Outlef – The Hurricane Highway |publisher=Mrgomustgo.org |access-date=2012-10-09}}</ref> Faulty design and substandard construction have been cited in the [[2005 levee failures in Greater New Orleans|failure of levees]] in the wake of [[Hurricane Katrina]] that caused flooding of 80% of the city of New Orleans.
Review of Corps of Engineers' projects has also been criticized for its lack of impartiality. The investigation of levee failure in New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina was sponsored by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] (ASCE) but funded by the Corps of Engineers and involved its employees.<ref>{{cite web |first=Colley | last=Charpentier |url=http://blog.nola.com/times-picayune/2007/11/critic_corps_tried_to_thwart_i.html |title=Critics of Corps investigation |publisher=Blog.nola.com |access-date=2022-11-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725145727/http://blog.nola.com/times-picayune/2007/11/critic_corps_tried_to_thwart_i.html |archive-date=25 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://levees.org/2/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/IPET-leadership-.doc |title=IPET Leadership|access-date=2017-01-16}}</ref>
Corps of Engineers projects can be found in all 50 states,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usace.army.mil |title=U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Home website |publisher=Usace.army.mil |date=2012-09-25 |access-date=2012-10-09}}</ref> and are specifically authorized and funded directly by Congress. Local citizen, special interest, and political groups [[Lobbying|lobby]] Congress for authorization and appropriations for specific projects in their area.<ref>[https://www.motherjones.com/news/featurex/2007/08/broken-the-army-corps-of-engineers.html Army Corps of Engineers is Broken](See "Skewed Priorities")</ref>
Senator [[Russ Feingold]] and Senator [[John McCain]] sponsored an amendment requiring peer review of Corps projects to the [[Water Resources Development Act of 2006]],<ref name=Feingold>[http://feingold.senate.gov/~feingold/releases/07/05/20070514.html Feingold, McCain, Coburn Work to Reform Army Corps of Engineers] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080119100812/http://feingold.senate.gov/~feingold/releases/07/05/20070514.html |date=19 January 2008 }}</ref> proclaiming "efforts to reform and add transparency to the way the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers receives funding for and undertakes water projects." A similar bill, the [[Water Resources Development Act of 2007]], which included the text of the original Corps' peer review measure, was eventually passed by Congress in 2007, overriding Presidential veto.<ref>{{cite web |author=Terry Baquet, The Times-Picayune |url=http://blog.nola.com/times-picayune/2007/11/water_bill_passes_despite_bush.html |title=Water bill passes despite Bush veto |publisher=Blog.nola.com |access-date=2012-10-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908043915/http://blog.nola.com/times-picayune/2007/11/water_bill_passes_despite_bush.html |archive-date=8 September 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[File:USACE Project map 2005.jpg|upright=2.75|center|thumb|USACE civil works activities 2005]]
===Military construction===
A number of Army camps and facilities designed by the Corps of Engineers, including the former [[Camp O'Ryan]] in New York State, have reportedly had a negative impact on the surrounding communities. Camp O'Ryan, with its [[rifle range]], has possibly contaminated well and storm runoff water with [[lead poisoning|lead]]. This runoff water eventually runs into the [[Niagara River]] and [[Lake Ontario]], sources of drinking water to millions of people. This situation is exacerbated by a failure to locate the engineering and architectural plans for the camp, which were produced by the New York District in 1949.<ref>FOIA Request to the Army Corps of Engineers, New York District, "records pertaining to the former Camp O'Ryan site, previously the Wethersfield Range", 21 February 2007</ref><ref>"State of New York Annual Report of the Chief of Staff to the Governor for the [[New York Division of Military and Naval Affairs|Division of Military and Naval Affairs]] for the Year 1949 ", Karl F. Hausauer, Major General, [[N.Y.N.G.]], Chief of Staff to the Governor, 31 December 1949, pages 57–59</ref>
===Greenhouse whistleblower suit===
[[Bunny Greenhouse|Bunnatine "Bunny" Greenhouse]], a formerly high-ranking official in the Corps of Engineers, won a lawsuit against the United States government in July 2011. Greenhouse had objected to the Corps accepting cost projections from [[KBR (company)|KBR]] in a no-bid, noncompetitive contract. After she complained, Greenhouse was demoted from her [[Senior Executive Service (United States)|Senior Executive Service]] position, stripped of her top secret security clearance, and even, according to Greenhouse, had her office booby-trapped with a trip-wire from which she sustained a knee injury. A U.S. District court awarded Greenhouse $970,000 in full restitution of lost wages, compensatory damages, and attorney fees.<ref>Davidson, Joe, "A Bittersweet Win for a Whistleblower", ''[[Washington Post]]'', 27 July 2011, p. B4.</ref>
==Units==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[412th Engineer Command (United States)|412th Engineer Command]]
* [[416th Engineer Command (United States)|416th Engineer Command]]
* [[1st Engineer Brigade (United States)|1st Engineer Brigade]]
* [[2nd Engineer Brigade (United States)|2nd Engineer Brigade]]
* [[16th Engineer Brigade (United States)|16th Engineer Brigade]]
* [[18th Engineer Brigade (United States)|18th Engineer Brigade]]
* [[20th Engineer Brigade (United States)|20th Engineer Brigade]]
* [[35th Engineer Brigade (United States)|35th Engineer Brigade]]
* [[36th Engineer Brigade (United States)|36th Engineer Brigade]]
* [[130th Engineer Brigade (United States)|130th Engineer Brigade]]
* [[194th Engineer Brigade (United States)|194th Engineer Brigade]]
* [[372nd Engineer Brigade (United States)|372nd Engineer Brigade]]
* [[411th Engineer Brigade (United States)|411th Engineer Brigade]]
* [[420th Engineer Brigade (United States)|420th Engineer Brigade]]
* [[555th Engineer Brigade (United States)|555th Engineer Brigade]]
* [[926th Engineer Brigade (United States)|926th Engineer Brigade]]
* [[1st Engineer Battalion (United States)|1st Engineer Battalion]]
* [[2nd Engineer Battalion (United States)|2nd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[3rd Engineer Battalion (United States)|3rd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[4th Engineer Battalion (United States)|4th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[5th Engineer Battalion (United States)|5th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[6th Engineer Battalion (United States)|6th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[7th Engineer Battalion (United States)|7th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[8th Engineer Battalion (United States)|8th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[9th Engineer Battalion (United States)|9th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[10th Engineer Battalion (United States)|10th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[11th Engineer Battalion (United States)|11th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[14th Engineer Battalion (United States)|14th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[15th Engineer Battalion (United States)|15th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[16th Engineer Battalion (United States)|16th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[19th Engineer Battalion (United States)|19th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[20th Engineer Battalion (United States)|20th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[21st Engineer Battalion (United States)|21st Engineer Battalion]]
* [[23rd Engineer Battalion (United States)|23rd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[27th Engineer Battalion (United States)|27th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[29th Engineer Battalion (United States)|29th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[31st Engineer Battalion (United States)|31st Engineer Battalion]]
* [[35th Engineer Battalion (United States)|35th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[37th Engineer Battalion (United States)|37th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[39th Engineer Battalion (United States)|39th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[40th Engineer Battalion (United States)|40th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[41st Engineer Battalion (United States)|41st Engineer Battalion]]
* [[44th Engineer Battalion (United States)|44th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[46th Engineer Battalion (United States)|46th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[52nd Engineer Battalion (United States)|52nd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[54th Engineer Battalion (United States)|54th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[62nd Engineer Battalion (United States)|62nd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[65th Engineer Battalion (United States)|65th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[70th Engineer Battalion (United States)|70th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[82nd Engineer Battalion (United States)|82nd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[84th Engineer Battalion (United States)|84th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[91st Engineer Battalion (United States)|91st Engineer Battalion]]
* [[92nd Engineer Battalion (United States)|92nd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[94th Engineer Battalion (United States)|94th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[101st Engineer Battalion (United States)|101st Engineer Battalion]]
* [[103rd Engineer Battalion (United States)|103rd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[107th Engineer Battalion (United States)|107th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[112th Engineer Battalion (United States)|112th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[120th Engineer Battalion (United States)|120th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[122nd Engineer Battalion (United States)|122nd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[127th Engineer Battalion (United States)|127th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[130th Engineer Battalion (United States)|130th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[133rd Engineer Battalion (United States)|133rd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[168th Engineer Battalion (United States)|168th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[169th Engineer Battalion (United States)|169th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[178th Engineer Battalion (United States)|178th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[204th Engineer Battalion (United States)|204th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[206th Engineer Battalion (United States)|206th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[216th Engineer Battalion (United States)|216th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[224th Engineer Battalion (United States)|224th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[227th Engineer Battalion (United States)|227th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[244th Engineer Battalion (United States)|244th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[249th Engineer Battalion (United States)|249th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[299th Engineer Battalion (United States)|299th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[307th Engineer Battalion (United States)|307th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[315th Engineer Battalion (United States)|315th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[317th Engineer Battalion (United States)|317th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[321st Engineer Battalion (United States)|321st Engineer Battalion]]
* [[326th Engineer Battalion (United States)|326th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[363rd Engineer Battalion (United States)|363rd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[365th Engineer Battalion (United States)|365th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[367th Engineer Battalion (United States)|367th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[368th Engineer Battalion (United States)|368th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[389th Engineer Battalion (United States)|389th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[391st Engineer Battalion (United States)|391st Engineer Battalion]]
* [[397th Engineer Battalion (United States)|397th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[411th Engineer Battalion (United States)|411th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[448th Engineer Battalion (United States)|448th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[458th Engineer Battalion (United States)|458th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[467th Engineer Battalion (United States)|467th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[463rd Engineer Battalion (United States)|463rd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[478th Engineer Battalion (United States)|478th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[479th Engineer Battalion (United States)|479th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[489th Engineer Battalion (United States)|489th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[528th Engineer Battalion (United States)|528th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[554th Engineer Battalion (United States)|554th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[572nd Engineer Battalion (United States)|572nd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[588th Engineer Battalion (United States)|588th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[724th Engineer Battalion (United States)|724th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[837th Engineer Battalion (United States)|837th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[841st Engineer Battalion (United States)|841st Engineer Battalion]]
* [[844th Engineer Battalion (United States)|844th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[854th Engineer Battalion (United States)|854th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[863rd Engineer Battalion (United States)|863rd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[864th Engineer Battalion (United States)|864th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[877th Engineer Battalion (United States)|877th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[961st Engineer Battalion (United States)|961st Engineer Battalion]]
* [[980th Engineer Battalion (United States)|980th Engineer Battalion]]
* [[983rd Engineer Battalion (United States)|983rd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[1092nd Engineer Battalion (United States)|1092nd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[1203rd Engineer Battalion (United States)|1203rd Engineer Battalion]]
* [[1249th Engineer Battalion (United States)|1249th Engineer Battalion]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Lineage Information |url=https://history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/lineages/branches/eng/defaultEN.htm#Brigades |website=U.S. Army Center of Military History |access-date=22 May 2024}}</ref>
{{div col end}}
==Notable personnel==
*[[Charles Keller (military)|Charles Keller]], former U.S. Army Brigadier General and the oldest Army officer to serve on active duty during [[World War II]].<ref name="Kellerbio2">[https://www.usace.army.mil/About/History/Historical-Vignettes/Military-Construction-Combat/079-Oldest-Officer/ Historical Vignette 079 – The Oldest U.S. Army Officer to Serve in World War II Was an Engineer]</ref><ref name="Kellerbio4">[https://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/charles-keller.htm Charles Keller – Brigadier General, United States Army]</ref>
*[[Peter Conover Hains]], former U.S. Army Major General and the oldest Army officer to serve on active duty during [[World War I]]. The only known person to serve in both the [[American Civil War]] and the First World War.<ref>[http://www.arlingtoncemetery.net/pchains.htm Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, Virginia]</ref>
==See also==
* [[Combat Pin for Civilian Service]]
* [[SDEF]]
* [[Title 33 of the Code of Federal Regulations]]
* United States Air Force [[Rapid Engineer Deployable Heavy Operational Repair Squadron Engineers]]
* [[United States Navy]] [[Seabee]]s
==Notes==
* {{USGovernment|url=http://www.usace.army.mil/publications/misc/ceho.htm|title=Miscellaneous USACE History Publications|agency=United States Army}}
* {{USGovernment|url=http://www.usace.army.mil/|title=The United States Army Corps of Engineers website|agency=United States Army}}
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
{{Further reading cleanup|date=September 2024}}
* US Army Corps of Engineers. ''The History of the US Army Corps of Engineers'' (Army Corps of Engineers, 1986) [https://dn790004.ca.archive.org/0/items/historyofusarmyc00wash_0/historyofusarmyc00wash_0.pdf online;  can be downloaded at no cost; not copyright]
* Angevine, Robert G. "Individuals, organizations, and engineering: US Army officers and the American railroads, 1827-1838." ''Technology and Culture'' 42.2 (2001): 292-320. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Robert-Angevine/publication/236820086_Individuals_Organizations_and_Engineering_US_Army_Officers_and_the_American_Railroads_1827-1838/links/58bee97092851cd83aa12306/Individuals-Organizations-and-Engineering-US-Army-Officers-and-the-American-Railroads-1827-1838.pdf online]
* Ballard, Joe N., ed. ''The history of the US Army Corps of Engineers'' (DIANE Publishing, 1999). [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=EKieF_-ycGkC&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=%22army+corps+of+engineers%22+history+roads&ots=Y8zbvRYftL&sig=jHtRWFwQDYZFUzHqhLevaVnendc online]
* Becker, William H. ''From the Atlantic to the Great Lakes: a history of the US Army Corps of Engineers and the St. Lawrence Seaway''  (Historical Division, Office of Administrative Services, Office of the Chief of Engineers, 1984) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=3kT4F9sKs3sC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=%22army+corps+of+engineers%22+history+roads&ots=fIDOPWfXAb&sig=B99RRkjZAdRR5hxIdrUbDjPM78Q online].
* Cowdrey, Albert E. "Pioneering Environmental Law: The Army Corps of Engineers and the Refuse Act." ''Pacific Historical Review'' (1975): 331-349. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3638031 online]
* Crump, Irving. ''Our Army Engineer'' (1954), popular history of 19 great projects; [https://archive.org/details/ourarmyengineer0000irvi/page/n5/mode/1up  online]
* Dobney, Fredrick J. ''River Engineers on the Middle Mississippi: A History of the St. Louis District, US Army Corps of Engineers'' (US Government Printing Office, 1978) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=HRBSAAAAMAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=%22army+corps+of+engineers%22+history+roads&ots=4clQP_KsN5&sig=dML2L2fkjQvmmkwOG_UAAnK203I online].
* Fine, Lenore, and Jesse Arthur Remington. ''The corps of engineers: Construction in the United States'' (Vol. 10. No. 5. Center of Military History, US Army, 1972). [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=sayH0re0p6MC&oi=fnd&pg=PA3&dq=%22army+corps+of+engineers%22+history+roads&ots=mLRAatG-Y8&sig=HRyi3EnG40Fpa2rftpYDXaajrCo online]
* Grathwol, Robert P., and Donita M. Moorhus. ''Bricks, sand, and marble: US Army Corps of Engineers construction in the Mediterranean and Middle East, 1947-1991'' (Vol. 45. Center of Military History, Corps of Engineers, US Army, 2009) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=HCAQHPJRiokC&oi=fnd&pg=PP18&dq=%22army+corps+of+engineers%22+history+roads&ots=kvCzGNIL8O&sig=xiTxmivpb2PB0bqN5YPPWJxo0v8 online].
* Griggs, William E. ''The World War II Black Regiment that Built the Alaska Military Highway: A Photographic History'' (Univ. Press of Mississippi, 2002) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=32OXlhNpto8C&oi=fnd&pg=PA5&dq=%22army+corps+of+engineers%22+history+roads&ots=_l-ZY-hAiY&sig=0n6ysXyEKzlVH3yUF_x2JiwJ6aU online].
* Hendricks, Charles. ''Combat and Construction: US Army Engineers in World War I'' (Vol. 870. No. 1-47. US Army Corps of Engineers, 1993) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=o8HUMvSDs6MC&oi=fnd&dq=%22army+corps+of+engineers%22+history+roads&ots=yFLmknvmUF&sig=FhwK0vQtmDWuZ3H-Xef4CuF1bbQ online].
* Hill, Forest G. ''Roads, rails & waterways: the army engineers and early transportation'' (1957) [https://archive.org/details/roadsrailswaterw00hill/page/n6/mode/1up online]
* Klawonn, Marion J. ''Cradle of the Corps: A History of the New York District, US Army Corps of Engineers, 1775-1975'' (Department of Defense, Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, New York District, 1977) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=4Sg0kSqBWNwC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=%22army+corps+of+engineers%22+history+roads&ots=ZuRaOix_CT&sig=OIewI4AZo-9mUF4QhdsIjio13ZA online].
* Johnson, Leland R. ''The Falls City Engineers: A History of the Louisville District, Corps of Engineers, United States Army, 1970-1983'' (US Army Engineer District, 1984) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=xUosAAAAYAAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP10&dq=%22army+corps+of+engineers%22+history+roads&ots=zOtNbjmNxw&sig=aHU5I17-JiLOeTDS62ahdfGmM0w online].
* Prucha, Francis Paul. ''Broadax and bayonet : the role of the United States Army in the development of the northwest, 1815-1860'' (1953) [https://archive.org/details/broadaxbayonetro0000pruc online]
* Scott, Pamela. ''Capital Engineers: The US Army Corps of Engineers in the Development of Washington, DC 1790-2004'' (Office of History, Headquarters, US Army Corps of Engineers, 2011). [https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA581171.pdf online]
* Shallat, Todd. "Building waterways, 1802–1861: Science and the United States Army in early public works." ''Technology and Culture'' 31.1 (1990): 18-50. [https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/888918/summary excerpt]
* Shallat, Todd. ''Structures in the stream: Water, science, and the rise of the US Army Corps of Engineers'' (University of Texas Press, 2010) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=NawAAQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=IA1&dq=%22army+corps+of+engineers%22+history+roads&ots=gR3A7JsR9Z&sig=9kJC-IUpZULqXauM6i-kyevTvBg online].
* Thompson, Erwin N. ''Pacific Ocean Engineers: History of the US Army Corps of Engineers in the Pacific, 1905-1980'' (US Government Printing Office, 1985) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=YiEmQqfnSPsC&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&dq=%22army+corps+of+engineers%22+history+roads&ots=J_M5gxyM3-&sig=NJL37AjFqOo2nxKA60K2p1Oj6Rs online].
* U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. ''Builders and Fighters: U. S. Army Engineers in World War II'' (University Press of the Pacific, 2005) 556pp {{ISBN|1410221776}}
* Willingham, William F. ''Northwest Passages: A History of the Seattle District, US Army Corps of Engineers'' (US Army Corps of Engineers, Seattle District, 1992) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=68mVZxPWcYMC&oi=fnd&pg=PR2&dq=%22army+corps+of+engineers%22+history+roads&ots=kB_DlJx5Th&sig=Cb5QUMn5b1v6UvsRErCq0om5pM8 online].
* [http://texashistory.unt.edu/browse/collection/ACE/ Historic photos of Corps of Engineers lock and dam projects throughout Texas in 1910-20s] (from the ''Portal to Texas History'')
* {{cite book |last=Stars and Stripes |author-link=Stars and Stripes (newspaper) |url=http://www.lonesentry.com/gi_stories_booklets/engineers/index.html |title=Engineering the Victory: The Story of the Corps of Engineers |date=1945 |access-date=2014-11-11 }}
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