View source for Vibrio

{{Short description|Genus of bacteria and the disease it can cause}}
{{about|the bacterial genus|the infection|Vibriosis}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Vibrio_cholerae_01.jpg
| image_caption = [[Flagella]]r stain of ''V. cholerae''
| taxon = Vibrio
| authority = Pacini 1854
| type_species = ''Vibrio cholerae''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = ''[[Vibrio adaptatus|V. adaptatus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio aerogenes|V. aerogenes]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio aestivus|V. aestivus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio aestuarianus|V. aestuarianus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio agarivorans|V. agarivorans]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio albensis|V. albensis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio alfacsensis|V. alfacsensis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio alginolyticus|V. alginolyticus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio anguillarum|V. anguillarum]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio areninigrae|V. areninigrae]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio artabrorum|V. artabrorum]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio atlanticus|V. atlanticus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio atypicus|V. atypicus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio azureus|V. azureus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio brasiliensis|V. brasiliensis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio bubulus|V. bubulus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio calviensis|V. calviensis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio campbellii|V. campbellii]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio casei|V. casei]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio chagasii|V. chagasii]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio cholerae|V. cholerae]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio cincinnatiensis|V. cincinnatiensis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio coralliilyticus|V. coralliilyticus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio crassostreae|V. crassostreae]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio cyclitrophicus|V. cyclitrophicus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio diabolicus|V. diabolicus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio diazotrophicus|V. diazotrophicus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio ezurae|V. ezurae]]''<br/>
<!-- Vibrio fischeri was reclassified as Aliivibrio fischeri. -->
''[[Vibrio fluvialis|V. fluvialis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio fortis|V. fortis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio furnissii|V. furnissii]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio gallicus|V. gallicus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio gazogenes|V. gazogenes]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio gigantis|V. gigantis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio halioticoli|V. halioticoli]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio harveyi|V. harveyi]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio hepatarius|V. hepatarius]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio hippocampi|V. hippocampi]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio hispanicus|V. hispanicus]]''<br/>
<!-- Vibrio hollisae was reclassified as Grimontia hollisae. -->
''[[Vibrio ichthyoenteri|V. ichthyoenteri]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio indicus|V. indicus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio kanaloae|V. kanaloae]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio lentus|V. lentus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio litoralis|V. litoralis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio logei|V. logei]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio mediterranei|V. mediterranei]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio metschnikovii|V. metschnikovii]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio mimicus|V. mimicus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio mytili|V. mytili]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio natriegens|V. natriegens]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio navarrensis|V. navarrensis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio neonatus|V. neonatus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio neptunius|V. neptunius]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio nereis|V. nereis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio nigripulchritudo|V. nigripulchritudo]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio ordalii|V. ordalii]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio orientalis|V. orientalis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio pacinii|V. pacinii]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio parahaemolyticus|V. parahaemolyticus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio pectenicida|V. pectenicida]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio pelagius|V. pelagius]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio penaeicida|V. penaeicida]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio pomeroyi|V. pomeroyi]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio ponticus|V. ponticus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio proteolyticus|V. proteolyticus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio rotiferianus|V. rotiferianus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio ruber|V. ruber]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio rumoiensis|V. rumoiensis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio salmonicida|V. salmonicida]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio scophthalmi|V. scophthalmi]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio splendidus|V. splendidus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio superstes|V. superstes]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio tapetis|V. tapetis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio tasmaniensis|V. tasmaniensis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio tubiashii|V. tubiashii]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio vulnificus|V. vulnificus]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio wodanis|V. wodanis]]''<br/>
''[[Vibrio xuii|V. xuii]]''<br/>
| synonyms =
* ''Allomonas'' <small>Kalina et al. 1984</small>
* ''Beneckea'' <small>Campbell 1957 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
* ''Lucibacterium'' <small>Hendrie et al. 1970 (Approved Lists 1980)</small>
}}
'''''Vibrio''''' is a [[genus]] of [[Gram-negative bacteria]], possessing a curved-rod (comma) shape,<ref name="Thompson2" /><ref name="Sherris" /><ref name="FaruqueNair" /><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2021-12-15|title=Identification of marine sponge-associated bacteria of the Saint Martin's island of the Bay of Bengal emphasizing on the prevention of motile Aeromonas septicemia in Labeo rohita|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S004484862100819X|journal=Aquaculture|language=en|volume=545|pages=737156|doi=10.1016/j.aquaculture.2021.737156|issn=0044-8486|last1=Paul|first1=Sulav Indra|last2=Rahman|first2=Md. Mahbubur|last3=Salam|first3=Mohammad Abdus|last4=Khan|first4=Md. Arifur Rahman|last5=Islam|first5=Md. Tofazzal|display-authors=3|url-access=subscription}}</ref> several species of which can cause [[foodborne illness|foodborne infection]] or soft-tissue infection called [[Vibriosis]]. Infection is commonly associated with eating undercooked seafood. Being highly salt tolerant and unable to survive in freshwater, ''Vibrio'' spp. are commonly found in various [[Seawater|salt water]] environments. ''Vibrio'' spp. are [[Facultative anaerobic organism|facultative anaerobes]] that test positive for [[oxidase]] and do not form [[endospore|spores]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Brock" /> All members of the genus are [[Motility|motile]]. They are able to have polar or lateral [[flagellum]] with or without sheaths.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Khan|first1=Fazlurrahman|last2=Tabassum|first2=Nazia|last3=Anand|first3=Raksha|last4=Kim|first4=Young-Mog|date=2020-10-01|title=Motility of Vibrio spp.: regulation and controlling strategies|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-020-10794-7|journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology|language=en|volume=104|issue=19|pages=8187–8208|doi=10.1007/s00253-020-10794-7|pmid=32816086|s2cid=221182959 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> ''Vibrio'' species typically possess two [[chromosome]]s, which is unusual for bacteria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Trucksis|first1=Michele|last2=Michalski|first2=Jane|last3=Deng|first3=Ying Kang|last4=Kaper|first4=James B.|date=1998-11-24|title=The Vibrio cholerae genome contains two unique circular chromosomes|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=95|issue=24|pages=14464–9|doi=10.1073/pnas.95.24.14464 |pmid=9826723|pmc=24396|bibcode=1998PNAS...9514464T|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Okada|first1=Kazuhisa|last2=Iida|first2=Tetsuya|last3=Kita-Tsukamoto|first3=Kumiko|last4=Honda|first4=Takeshi|date=2005-01-15|title=Vibrios Commonly Possess Two Chromosomes|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|language=en|volume=187|issue=2|pages=752–7|doi=10.1128/JB.187.2.752-757.2005 |pmc=543535|pmid=15629946}}</ref> Each chromosome has a distinct and independent [[origin of replication]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rasmussen|first1=Tue|last2=Jensen|first2=Rasmus Bugge|last3=Skovgaard|first3=Ole|date=2007 |title=The two chromosomes of Vibrio cholerae are initiated at different time points in the cell cycle|journal=The EMBO Journal |volume=26|issue=13|pages=3124–3131|doi=10.1038/sj.emboj.7601747 |pmc=1914095|pmid=17557077}}</ref> and are conserved together over time in the genus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kirkup|first1=Benjamin C.|last2=Chang|first2=LeeAnn|last3=Chang|first3=Sarah|last4=Gevers|first4=Dirk|last5=Polz|first5=Martin F.|display-authors=3|date=2010-01-01|title=Vibrio chromosomes share common history|journal=BMC Microbiology|volume=10|pages=137|doi=10.1186/1471-2180-10-137 |pmc=2875227|pmid=20459749 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Recent phylogenies have been constructed based on a suite of genes (multilocus [[sequence analysis]]).<ref name="Thompson2"/>
[[O. F. Müller]] (1773, 1786) described eight species of the genus ''Vibrio'' (included in [[Infusoria]]), three of which were spirilliforms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pot |first1=B. |last2=Gillis |first2=M. |last3=De Ley |first3=J. |editor-last=Balows |editor-first=A. |editor2-last=Trüper |editor2-first=H.G. |editor3-last=Dworkin |editor3-first=M. |editor4-last=Harder |editor4-first=W. |editor5-last=Schleifer |editor5-first=KH. |chapter=The Genus ''Oceanospirillum'' |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4757-2191-1_10  |title=The Prokaryotes |publisher=Springer |date=1992 |isbn=978-1-4757-2191-1 |pages=3230–6 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4757-2191-1_10 |oclc=1250076632 |edition=2nd }}</ref> Some of the other species are today assigned to eukaryote taxa, e.g., to the [[euglenoid]] ''[[Peranema]]'' or to the [[diatom]] ''[[Bacillaria]]''. However, ''Vibrio'' Müller, 1773 became regarded as the name of a zoological genus, and the name of the bacterial genus became ''Vibrio'' Pacini, 1854.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hugh |first=R.|date=1964 |title=The Proposed Conservation of the Generic Name Vibrio Pacini 1854 and Designation of the Neotype Strain of Vibrio Cholerae Pacini 1854 |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology|volume=14|issue=2|pages=87–101|doi=10.1099/0096266X-14-2-87|s2cid=84020788|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Filippo Pacini]] isolated micro-organisms he called "[[vibrion]]s" from cholera patients in 1854, because of their motility.<ref name="AUTOREF" /> In [[Latin]] "vibrio" means "to quiver".<ref>{{cite web | last = Stöppler, MD | first = Melissa | title = Medical Definition of Vibrio cholerae | work = MedTerms Dictionary | publisher = [[MedicineNet]] | url = https://www.medicinenet.com/vibrio_cholerae/definition.htm | accessdate = 2021-06-03 }}</ref>
== Biochemical characteristics of ''Vibrio'' spp. ==
The genus ''Vibrio'' contains a large number of species, and these vary somewhat in their biochemical characteristics. Colony, morphological, physiological, and biochemical characteristics of the genus ''Vibrio''&nbsp;are shown in the Table below.<ref name=":0" />
{| class="wikitable"
! Test type
! Test
! Group-1
! Group-2
|-
| rowspan="4" |Colony  characters
|Size
|Medium
|Medium
|-
|Type
|Round
|Round
|-
|Color
|Whitish
|Whitish
|-
|Shape
|Convex
|Convex
|-
|Morphological  characters
|Shape
|Curved-rod
|Curved-rod
|-
| rowspan="2" |Physiological  characters
|Motility
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|Growth  at 6.5% NaCl
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
| rowspan="12" |Biochemical  characters
|Gram’s staining
|–
|–
|-
|Oxidase
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|Catalase
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|Oxidative-Fermentative
|Fermentative
|Oxidative
|-
|Motility
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|Methyl Red
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|–
|-
|Voges-Proskauer
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|–
|-
|Indole
|–
|–
|-
|H<sub>2</sub>S Production
|–
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|Urease
|–
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|Nitrate reductase
|–
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|β-Galactosidase
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
| rowspan="6" |Hydrolysis  of
|Gelatin
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|Aesculin
|–
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|Casein
|–
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|Tween 40
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|Tween 60
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|Tween 80
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
| rowspan="13" |Acid  production from
|Glycerol
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|Galactose
|–
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|D-Glucose
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|D-Fructose
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|V
|-
|D-Mannose
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|V
|-
|Mannitol
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|V
|-
|N-Acetylglucosamine
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|Amygdalin
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|–
|-
|Maltose
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|D-Melibiose
|–
|–
|-
|D-Trehalose
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|–
|-
|Glycogen
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|-
|D-Turanose
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|<nowiki>+</nowiki>
|}
Note: Group-1: ''Vibrio alginolyticus''; Group-2: ''Vibrio natriegens, Vibrio pelagius, Vibrio azureus''; + = Positive; – =Negative; V =Variable (+/–)
==Pathogenic strains==
[[File:TCBS agar plate of Vibrio Cholerae and vibrio parahaemolyticus.jpg|thumb|[[TCBS agar]] plate of ''[[Vibrio Cholerae]]'' (left) and ''[[Vibrio parahaemolyticus]]'' (right)]]
Several species of ''Vibrio'' are [[pathogens]].<ref>C.Michael Hogan. 2010. [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacteria?topic=49480 ''Bacteria''. Encyclopedia of Earth. eds. Sidney Draggan and C.J.Cleveland, National Council for Science and the Environment, Washington, DC] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511132823/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Bacteria?topic=49480 |date=May 11, 2011 }}</ref> Most disease-causing strains are associated with [[gastroenteritis]], but can also infect open wounds and cause [[sepsis]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Michelle T.|last2=Dinh|first2=An Q.|last3=Nguyen|first3=Stephanie|last4=Krucke|first4=Gus|last5=Tran|first5=Truc T.|display-authors=3|date=2019-03-28|title=Late-onset Vibrio vulnificus septicemia without cirrhosis|journal=Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings|volume=32|issue=2|pages=286–288|doi=10.1080/08998280.2019.1580661|pmid=31191157 |pmc=6541083}}</ref> They can be carried by numerous marine animals, such as crabs or prawns, and have been known to cause fatal infections in humans after exposure.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cabanillas-Beltrán|first1=Héctor|last2=LLausás-Magaña|first2=Eduardo|last3=Romero|first3=Ricardo|last4=Espinoza|first4=Abel|last5=García-Gasca|first5=Alejandra|last6=Nishibuchi|first6=Mitsuaki|last7=Ishibashi|first7=Masanori|last8=Gomez-Gil|first8=Bruno|display-authors=3|date=2006-12-01|title=Outbreak of gastroenteritis caused by the pandemic Vibrio parahaemolyticus O3 : K6 in Mexico|journal=FEMS Microbiology Letters|volume=265|issue=1|pages=76–80|doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.2006.00475.x|pmid=17107421 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Risk of clinical disease and death increases with certain factors, such as uncontrolled diabetes, [[Iron overload|elevated iron levels]] (cirrhosis, [[sickle cell disease]], [[HFE hereditary haemochromatosis|hemochromatosis]]), and cancer or other immunocompromised states. Pathogenic ''Vibrio'' species include ''[[Vibrio cholerae|V. cholerae]]'' (the causative agent of [[cholera]]), ''[[Vibrio parahaemolyticus|V. parahaemolyticus]]'', and ''[[Vibrio vulnificus|V. vulnificus]].'' ''V. cholerae'' is generally transmitted by [[contaminated water]].<ref name="FaruqueNair" /> Pathogenic ''Vibrio'' species can cause foodborne illness (infection), usually associated with eating undercooked seafood.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NAL FSRIO Vibrio Cholerae food safety topic reference |url=https://www.nal.usda.gov/human-nutrition-and-food-safety/bacterial-pathogens-viruses-and-foodborne-illness |website=NAL FSRIO Vibrio Cholerae food safety topic reference}}</ref> When ingested ''Vibrio'' bacteria can primarily result in watery diarrhea along with other secondary symptoms.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-03-02|title=Symptoms |work=Vibrio Illness (Vibriosis) |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |url=https://www.cdc.gov/vibrio/symptoms.html|access-date=2021-03-30 }}</ref> The pathogenic features can be linked to [[quorum sensing]], where bacteria are able to express their virulence factor via their signaling molecules.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tan|first1=Wen-Si|last2=Muhamad Yunos|first2=Nina Yusrina|last3=Tan|first3=Pui-Wan|last4=Mohamad|first4=Nur Izzati|last5=Adrian|first5=Tan-Guan-Sheng|last6=Yin|first6=Wai-Fong|last7=Chan|first7=Kok-Gan|display-authors=3|title=Characterisation of a Marine Bacterium Vibrio Brasiliensis T33 Producing N-acyl Homoserine Lactone Quorum Sensing Molecules|journal=Sensors|date=8 July 2014|volume=14|issue=7|pages=12104–12113|doi=10.3390/s140712104|pmid=25006994|pmc=4168498|bibcode=2014Senso..1412104T|doi-access=free}}</ref>
''V. vulnificus'' outbreaks commonly occur in warm climates and small, generally lethal, outbreaks occur regularly. An outbreak occurred in New Orleans after [[Hurricane Katrina]],<ref name="Jablecki_2005" /> and several lethal cases occur most years in Florida.<ref name="Florida" /> As of 2013 in the United States, ''Vibrio'' infections as a whole were up 43% when compared with the rates observed in 2006–2008. ''V. vulnificus'', the most severe strain, has not increased. Foodborne ''Vibrio'' infections are most often associated with eating raw [[shellfish]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Infections from some foodborne germs increased, while others remained unchanged in 2012|url=https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2013/p0418-foodborne-germs.html|access-date=April 19, 2013|newspaper=Centers for Disease Control|date=April 18, 2013}}</ref>
''V. parahaemolyticus'' is also associated with the Kanagawa phenomenon, in which strains isolated from human [[Host (biology)|hosts]] (clinical isolates) are [[Hemolysis|hemolytic]] on [[blood agar plate]]s, while those isolated from nonhuman sources are not hemolytic.<ref name="Joseph_1982" />
Many ''Vibrio'' species are also [[zoonotic]]. They cause disease in fish and shellfish, and are common causes of mortality among domestic marine life.
== Diagnosis ==
=== Cholera ===
A common sign of ''Vibrio'' infection is [[cholera]]. Cholera primarily presents with rapid water loss by watery diarrhea. Other symptoms include vomiting and muscle cramps.<ref name=":02">{{cite journal |vauthors=Clemens JD, Nair GB, Ahmed T, Qadri F, Holmgren J |title=Cholera |journal=Lancet |volume=390 |issue=10101 |pages=1539–1549 |date=September 2017 |pmid=28302312 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30559-7 }}</ref> Water loss can lead to dehydration which can be mild to moderate to severe. Moderate to severe dehydration requires immediate treatment. ''[[Vibrio cholerae|V. cholerae]]'' is the most common pathogen that causes cholera. The gold standard for detecting cholera is through cultures of stool samples or rectal swabs. Identification is then done through microscopy or by agglutination of antibodies.<ref name=":02" /> Cultures are done in thiosulfate citrate bile-salts sucrose agar. ''V cholerae'' will form yellow colonies.<ref name=":13">{{cite journal |vauthors=Baker-Austin C, Martinez-Urtaza J, Qadri F, et al |title=Vibrio spp. infections |journal=Nat Rev Dis Primers |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=7 |date=July 2018 |pmid=30002373 |doi=10.1038/s41572-018-0010-y }}</ref>
=== Vibriosis ===
Vibriosis is a sign of a more severe ''Vibrio'' infection. Common causes of vibriosis include consumption of raw or undercooked seafood, primarily oysters, or wound exposure to sea water. The majority of ''V. parahaemolyticus'' infections can be self-limiting and symptoms include diarrhea, nausea, headaches, fever and chills. ''V. vulnificus'' can lead to a more serious disease, particularly in wound infection which can turn into [[necrotizing fasciitis]]. ''V. parahaemolyticu''s is the most common pathogen in vibriosis, however ''V. vulnificus'' is more common in people who have certain risk factors like older age, liver disease or diabetes mellitus. Like all vibrio diagnosis, vibriosis can also be determined in stool cultures. ''V. parahaemolyticus'' and ''V. vulnificus'' will form green colonies.<ref name=":13"/>
== Treatment ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=March 2016}}
Medical care depends on the clinical presentation and the presence of underlying medical conditions.
=== ''Vibrio'' gastroenteritis ===
Because ''Vibrio'' gastroenteritis is self-limited in most patients, no specific medical therapy is required.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Noncholera Vibrio Infections - Infectious Diseases |url=https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/gram-negative-bacilli/noncholera-vibrio-infections |access-date=2021-03-30 |website=Merck Manuals Professional Edition |language=en-US}}</ref> Patients who cannot tolerate oral fluid replacement may require intravenous fluid therapy.
Although most ''Vibrio'' species are sensitive to antibiotics, such as [[doxycycline]] or [[ciprofloxacin]], antibiotic therapy does not shorten the course of the illness or the duration of pathogen excretion. However, if the patient is ill and has a high fever or an underlying medical condition, oral antibiotic therapy with doxycycline or ciprofloxacin can be initiated.<ref name=":3" />
=== Non-cholera'' Vibrio'' infections ===
Patients with non-cholera ''Vibrio'' wound infection or sepsis are much more ill and frequently have other medical conditions. Medical therapy consists of:
* Prompt initiation of effective antibiotic therapy (doxycycline or a quinolone)
* Intensive medical therapy with aggressive fluid replacement and vasopressors for hypotension and septic shock to correct acid-base and electrolytes abnormalities that may be associated with severe sepsis
* Early [[fasciotomy]] within 24 hours after development of clinical symptoms can be life-saving in patients with [[necrotizing fasciitis]].
* Early [[debridement]] of the infected wound has an important role in successful therapy and is especially indicated to avoid amputation of fingers, toes, or limbs.
* Expeditious and serial surgical evaluation and intervention are required because patients may deteriorate rapidly, especially those with necrotizing fasciitis or [[compartment syndrome]].
* Reconstructive surgery, such as skin grafts, are used in the recovery phase.
== Prevention ==
=== Cholera ===
The most effective method to prevent cholera is the improvement of water and food safety. This includes the sanitation of water, proper preparation of food and community awareness of outbreaks. Prevention has been most effective in countries where cholera is endemic.
Another method is [[cholera vaccine]]s. Examples of cholera vaccines include Dukoral and Vaxchora.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Hsueh BY, Waters CM |title=Combating Cholera |journal=F1000Res |volume=8 |date=2019 |page=589 |pmid=31069064 |pmc=6492228 |doi=10.12688/f1000research.18093.1 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Vibriosis ===
Prevention of vibriosis is mostly effective in food processing. Food items, mostly seafood, that commonly contain ''vibrio'' organisms are regularly controlled. The water that seafood is fished or farmed from is analyzed to determine microorganism content. Food processing methods like pasteurization and high pressure are used to eliminate microorganisms and pathogens.<ref name=":13"/>
== Other strains ==
<!-- ''[[Aliivibrio fischeri|A. fischeri]]'', ''[[Photobacterium phosphoreum]]'', and ''[[Vibrio harveyi|V. harveyi]]'' are notable for their ability to communicate. Both ''A. fischeri'' and ''Ph. phosphoreum'' are [[symbiosis|symbiotes]] of other marine organisms (typically [[jellyfish]], [[fish]], or [[squid]]), and produce light by [[bioluminescence]] through the mechanism of [[quorum sensing]]. -->
''V. harveyi'' is a pathogen of several aquatic animals, and is notable as a cause of luminous vibriosis in shrimp (prawns).<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Austin B, Zhang XH|title=''Vibrio harveyi'': a significant pathogen of marine vertebrates and invertebrates |journal=Letters in Applied Microbiology |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=119–214 |year=2006 |doi=10.1111/j.1472-765X.2006.01989.x | pmid=16869892|doi-access= }}</ref> ''[[Aliivibrio fischeri]]'' (or ''V. fischeri'') is known for its mutualistic symbiosis with the Hawaiian [[bobtail squid]], which is dependent on microbial luminescence.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Gimme shelter: how ''Vibrio fischeri'' successfully navigates an animal's multiple environments |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=4 |pages=356 |date=November 2013 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2013.00356 |pmid=24348467 |pmc=3843225 |vauthors=Norsworthy AN, Visick KL|doi-access=free }}</ref>
==Flagella==
The "typical", early-discovered ''Vibrio'' species, such as ''V. cholerae'', have a single polar [[flagellum]] (monotrichous) with sheath. Some species, such as ''V. parahaemolyticus'' and ''[[Vibrio alginolyticus|V. alginolyticus]]'', have both a single polar flagellum with sheath and thin flagella projecting in all directions (peritrichous), and the other species, such as ''V. fischeri'', have tufts of polar flagella with sheath (lophotrichous).<ref name="AUTOREF1" />
=== Structure ===
Typical bacterial flagellum structure contains three components: the basal body, the hook and the filament. Like typical bacteria, ''Vibrio'' spp, have these three components, but with increased complexity in the basal body. In addition, ''Vibrio'' spp. use five or six distinct flagellum subunits to construct the flagellar filament, rather than the single flagellin found in many other bacteria. In ''Vibrio'' spp, most have a single flagellum located on one pole of the bacterium, although some species have additional flagella in peritrichous or lophotrichous arrangements. Another difference is that the gradient used to power the flagellar motor is sodium driven rather than proton driven; this creates greater torque, and ''Vibrio'' flagella have been shown to rotate over five times faster than the {{H+|nolink}}-driven flagella of ''E. coli''. The flagellum is also surrounded by a sheath extending from the membrane. The purpose of this sheath has yet to be determined.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |vauthors=Echazarreta MA, Klose KE |title=Vibrio Flagellar Synthesis |journal=Front Cell Infect Microbiol |volume=9 |issue= |pages=131 |date=2019 |pmid=31119103 |pmc=6504787 |doi=10.3389/fcimb.2019.00131 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Effect on Virulence ===
Motility is very important for ''Vibrio'' spp for infection. Research has shown that a variety of ''Vibrios'' mutants that are defective in flagella synthesis or non-motile are defective in infection. Loss of motility in ''Vibrio'' has shown impaired colonization and adherence to host's intestines.<ref name=":2" />
==Natural transformation==
[[Transformation (genetics)|Natural transformation]] is a common bacterial adaptation for DNA transfer that employs numerous bacterial gene products.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen I, Dubnau D |title=DNA uptake during bacterial transformation |journal=Nat. Rev. Microbiol. |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=241–9 |year=2004 |pmid=15083159 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro844 |s2cid=205499369 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bernstein H, Bernstein C, Michod RE |title=Sex in microbial pathogens |journal=Infect Genet Evol |volume=57 |issue= |pages=8–25 |date=January 2018 |pmid=29111273 |doi=10.1016/j.meegid.2017.10.024 }}</ref> For a recipient bacterium to bind, take up, and recombine exogenous DNA into its chromosome, it must become [[Natural competence|competent]], that is, enter a special physiologic state. The DNA-uptake process of naturally competent ''V. cholerae'' involves an extended competence-induced pilus and a DNA-binding protein that acts as a ratchet and reels DNA into the periplasm.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Matthey N, Blokesch M |title=The DNA-Uptake Process of Naturally Competent ''Vibrio cholerae'' |journal=Trends Microbiol. |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=98–110 |year=2016 |pmid=26614677 |doi=10.1016/j.tim.2015.10.008 }}</ref> Natural transformation has also been described for ''V. fischeri'',<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Pollack-Berti A, Wollenberg MS, Ruby EG |title=Natural transformation of Vibrio fischeri requires tfoX and tfoY |journal=Environ. Microbiol. |volume=12 |issue=8 |pages=2302–11 |year=2010 |pmid=21966921 |pmc=3034104 |doi=10.1111/j.1462-2920.2010.02250.x }}</ref> ''V. vulnificus''<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gulig PA, Tucker MS, Thiaville PC, Joseph JL, Brown RN |display-authors=3|title=USER friendly cloning coupled with chitin-based natural transformation enables rapid mutagenesis of Vibrio vulnificus |journal=Appl. Environ. Microbiol. |volume=75 |issue=15 |pages=4936–49 |year=2009 |pmid=19502446 |pmc=2725515 |doi=10.1128/AEM.02564-08 |bibcode=2009ApEnM..75.4936G }}</ref> and ''V. parahaemolyticus''.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen Y, Dai J, Morris JG, Johnson JA |title=Genetic analysis of the capsule polysaccharide (K antigen) and exopolysaccharide genes in pandemic Vibrio parahaemolyticus O3:K6 |journal=BMC Microbiol. |volume=10 |pages=274 |year=2010 |pmid=21044320 |pmc=2987987 |doi=10.1186/1471-2180-10-274 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
== Small RNA ==
''V. cholerae'' has been used in discoveries of many [[bacterial small RNA]]s. Using sRNA-Seq and Northern blot candidate sRNAs were identified and characterised as [[Intron|IGR]]-sRNA (intragenic region), AS-sRNAs (transcribed from the antisense strand of the [[open reading frame]] (ORF) and ORF-derived.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Jane M.|last2=Livny|first2=Jonathan|last3=Lawrence|first3=Michael S.|last4=Kimball|first4=Marc D.|last5=Waldor|first5=Matthew K.|last6=Camilli|first6=Andrew|display-authors=3|date=April 2009|title=Experimental discovery of sRNAs in Vibrio cholerae by direct cloning, 5S/tRNA depletion and parallel sequencing|journal=Nucleic Acids Research|volume=37|issue=6|pages=e46|doi=10.1093/nar/gkp080 |pmc=2665243|pmid=19223322}}</ref> One of the candidates from this study, IGR 7, was shown to be involved in carbon metabolism and later renamed [[MtlS RNA]]. Other sRNAs identified in ''V. cholerae'' through genetic screens and computational methods include [[Qrr RNA]], [[Vibrio regulatory RNA of OmpA]], [[MicX sRNA|MiX sRNA]], [[Vibrio cholerae ToxT activated RNAs]], [[Sxy 5' UTR element|foR RNA]], and [[VqmR sRNA]].
==See also==
* [[Cholera toxin]]
*[[Climate change and infectious diseases]]
==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Sherris">{{Cite book | editor = Ryan KJ | editor2 = Ray CG | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-8385-8529-0 }}</ref>
<ref name="FaruqueNair">{{Cite book | editor = Faruque SM | editor2 = Nair GB | title = Vibrio cholerae: Genomics and Molecular Biology | publisher = Caister Academic Press | year = 2008 | url=http://www.horizonpress.com/vib | isbn =978-1-904455-33-2}}</ref>
<ref name="Brock">{{Cite book | editor = Madigan, Michael | editor2 = Martinko, John | title = Brock Biology of Microorganisms | edition = 11th | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-0-13-144329-7 }}</ref>
<ref name="Thompson2">{{Cite journal |title =Phylogeny and Molecular Identification of Vibrios on the Basis of Multilocus Sequence Analysis
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|bibcode=2005ApEnM..71.5107T }}</ref>
<ref name="AUTOREF">{{Cite web|url=http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2605.html|title = Filippo Pacini}}</ref>
<ref name="Jablecki_2005">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jablecki J, Norton SA, Keller GR, DeGraw C, Ratard R, Straif-Bourgeois S, Holcombe JM, Quilter S, Byers P, McNeill M, Schlossberg D, Dohony DP, Neville J, Carlo J, Buhner D, Smith BR, Wallace C, Jernigan D, Sobel J, Reynolds M, Moore M, Kuehnert M, Mott J, Jamieson D, Burns-Grant G, Misselbeck T, Cruise PE, LoBue P, Holtz T, Haddad M, Clark TA, Cohen A, Sunenshine R, Jhung M, Vranken P, Lewis FM, Carpenter LR |display-authors=3 |title=Infectious disease and dermatologic conditions in evacuees and rescue workers after Hurricane Katrina—multiple states, August-September, 2005 |journal=MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep |volume=54 |issue=38 |pages=961–4 |date=September 2005 |pmid=16195696 }}</ref>
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<ref name="Joseph_1982">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Joseph S, Colwell R, Kaper J |title=Vibrio parahaemolyticus and related halophilic Vibrios |journal=Crit Rev Microbiol |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=77–124 |year=1982 |pmid=6756788 |doi=10.3109/10408418209113506}}</ref>
<ref name="AUTOREF1">{{Cite book|editor=George M. Garrity|title=Bergey's manual of Systematic Bacteriology|edition= 2nd |series=Vol. 2 Part B|publisher=Springer|year=2005|pages=496–8|isbn= 978-0-387-24144-9}}</ref>
|2}}
==External links==
* [https://patricbrc.org/view/Taxonomy/662#view_tab=overview Vibrio] genomes and related information at [http://patricbrc.org/ PATRIC], a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/ NIAID]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070408160403/http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~ebam/bam-9.html Bacteriological Analytical Manual Online]
{{Bacteria classification}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q753490}}
[[Category:Bacteria genera]]
[[Category:Food microbiology]]
[[Category:Vibrionales]]