View source for Youth

{{short description|Time between childhood and adulthood}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Distinguish|yodh}}
[[File:1970sgirls.jpg|thumbnail|A group of college women in the United States, 1973.]]
[[File:20011-08 przystanek woodstock 0 36.jpg|thumb|Young people dressed in [[casual wear]] attend [[Woodstock Festival (Poland)|Woodstock Festival]] of [[rock music]], Poland, 2011]]
'''Youth''' is the time of [[life]] when one is young. The word, youth, can also mean the time between [[childhood]] and [[adult]]hood ([[Maturity (psychological)|maturity]]), but it can also refer to one's peak, in terms of health or the period of life known as being a  [[young adult]].<ref>[http://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/american/youth "Youth"]. ''Macmillan Dictionary''. Macmillan Publishers Limited. Retrieved 2013-8-15.</ref><ref name="Youth1">{{cite web|title=Youth|website=Merriam-Webster| access-date=November 6, 2012|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/youth}}</ref> Youth is also defined as "the appearance, freshness, vigor, spirit, etc., characteristic of one, who is young".<ref name="Youth2">{{cite web|title=Youth| publisher=Dictionary.com|access-date=November 6, 2012|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/youth}}</ref> Its definitions of a specific age range varies, as youth is not defined [[Chronology|chronologically]] as a stage that can be tied to specific age ranges; nor can its end point be linked to specific activities, such as taking [[unpaid work]], or having [[Human sexual activity|sexual relations]].<ref name=Furlong1>{{cite book|last1=Furlong|first1=Andy|title=Youth Studies: An Introduction|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=USA|isbn=978-0-415-56476-2|pages=2–3}}</ref><ref>Youth participation in political activities: The art of participation in Bhakkar, Punjab Pakistan, Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 30:6, 760-777, https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2020.1745112</ref>
Youth is an experience that may shape an individual's level of [[Dependency theory|dependency]], which can be marked in various ways according to different [[Culture|cultural]] perspectives. Personal [[experience]] is marked by an individual's cultural norms or [[tradition]]s, while a youth's level of dependency means the extent to which they still rely on their [[family]] [[emotion]]ally and [[Economically Weaker Section|economically]].<ref name=Furlong1/>
== Terminology and definitions ==
[[File:Tides Class Stallings-1 (9719204532).jpg|thumb|Students of a U.S. university do an outdoor class, where they discuss topics while walking.]]
[[File:Afghan children in Badakhshan Province-2012.jpg|thumb|Youth in Afghanistan]]
=== General ===
Around the world, the [[English language|English]] terms ''youth'', ''[[Adolescence|adolescent]]'', ''[[teenager]]'', ''kid'', ''youngster'' and ''young person'' often mean the same thing,<ref>Konopka, Gisela. (1973) [http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ087128 "Requirements for Healthy Development of Adolescent Youth"], ''Adolescence''. '''8''' (31), p. 24.</ref> but they are occasionally differentiated. ''Youth'' can be referred to as the time of life, when one is young. The meaning may in some instances also include childhood.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.yourdictionary.com/youth |title=Youth dictionary definition – youth defined}}</ref><ref>Webster's New World Dictionary.</ref> ''Youth'' also identifies a particular mindset of attitude, as in "He is very ''youth''ful". For certain uses, such as employment statistics, the term also sometimes refers to individuals from the ages of up to 21.<ref>Altschuler, D.; Strangler, G.; Berkley, K.; Burton, L. (2009); [http://cjjr.georgetown.edu/pdfs/TransitionPaperFinal.pdf "Supporting Youth in Transition to Adulthood: Lessons Learned from Child Welfare and Juvenile Justice"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120916235341/http://cjjr.georgetown.edu/pdfs/TransitionPaperFinal.pdf |date=September 16, 2012 }}. Center for Juvenile Justice Reform.</ref> However, the term ''adolescence'' refers to a specific age range during a specific developmental period in a person's life, unlike youth, which is a socially constructed category.<ref name="Furlong1" />
The [[United Nations]] defines ''youth'' as persons between the ages of roughly 12 and 24, with all UN statistics based on this range, the UN states education as a source for these statistics. The UN also recognizes that this varies without prejudice to other age groups listed by member states such as 18–30. A useful distinction within the UN itself can be made between teenagers (i.e. those between the ages of 13 and 19) and young adults (those between the ages of 20 and 24). While seeking to impose some uniformity on statistical approaches, the UN is aware of contradictions between approaches in its own statutes. Hence, under the 15–24 definition (introduced in 1981) children are defined as those under the age of (someone 12 and younger) while under the 1979 Convention on the [[Rights of the Child]], those under the age of 18 are regarded as children.<ref name=Furlong2>{{cite book|last1=Furlong|first1=Andy|title=Youth Studies: An Introduction|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=USA|isbn=978-0-415-56476-2|pages=3–4}}</ref> The UN also states they are aware that several definitions exist for [https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/documents/youth/fact-sheets/youth-definition.pdf youth within UN entities] such as [http://unhabitat.org/ Youth Habitat 15–32], [https://www.ncsl.org/research/human-services/homeless-and-runaway-youth.aspx/ NCSL 12-24], and African Youth Charter 15–35.
On November 11, 2020, the [[State Duma]] of the [[Russian Federation]] approved a project to raise the cap on the age of young people from 30 to 35 years (the range now extending from 14 to 35 years).<ref>[http://www.rapsinews.com/legislation_news/20201111/306489146.html Youth in Russia], accessed 12 June 2021</ref>
Although linked to biological processes of development and aging, ''youth'' is also defined as a [[social position]] that reflects the meanings different cultures and societies give to individuals between childhood and adulthood. The term in itself when referred to in a manner of social position can be [[Ambiguity|ambiguous]] when applied to someone of an older age with very low social position; potentially when still dependent on their guardians.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Youth Studies: An Introduction|last = Furlong|first = Andy|publisher = Routledge|year = 2011|isbn = 978-0415564793|location = New York}}</ref> Scholars argue that age-based definitions have not been consistent across cultures or times and that thus it is more accurate to focus on social processes in the transition to adult independence for defining youth.<ref name="Tyyska">{{cite book|title=Contemporary Youth Research: Local Expressions and Global Connections|page=3|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXuqQ_hueXQC&q=Conceptualizing%20and%20theorizing%20youth%3A%20Global%20perspectives&pg=PA3|isbn=0-7546-4161-9|publisher=Ashgate Books|location=London|year=2005|author=Tyyskä, Vappu|chapter=Conceptualizing and Theorizing Youth: Global Perspectives}}</ref>
:"This world demands the qualities of youth: not a time of life but a state of mind, a temper of the will, a quality of imagination, a predominance of courage over timidity, of the appetite for adventure over the life of ease." – Robert Kennedy<ref>[http://rfkcenter.org/lifevision/dayofaffirmation/ "Day of Affirmation, University of Cape Town, South Africa. June 6, 1966"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110227110620/http://rfkcenter.org/lifevision/dayofaffirmation/ |date=February 27, 2011 }}, Robert F. Kennedy Memorial. Retrieved 11/9/07.</ref>
Youth is the stage of constructing the [[self-concept]]. The self-concept of youth is influenced by variables such as peers, lifestyle, gender, and culture.<ref>Thomas, A. (2003) "Psychology of Adolescents", ''Self-Concept, Weight Issues and Body Image in Children and Adolescents'', p. 88.</ref> It is a time of a person's life when their choices are most likely to affect their future.<ref>Wing, John, Jr. "Youth." ''Windsor Review: A Journal of the Arts'' 45.1 (2012): 9+. Academic OneFile. Web. 24 Oct. 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|year = 2020|title = Democratic practices and youth in political participation: a doctoral study|journal =  International Journal of Adolescence and Youth|volume = 25|issue =1|pages = 800–808|doi = 10.1080/02673843.2020.1746676|first1= Muhammad |last1=Saud|first2= Rachmah|last2= Ida |first3 = Musta’in |last3 =Mashud|doi-access = free}}</ref>
=== Other definitions ===
[[File:Skateboarding at Mexico City - Flip - 063.JPG|thumb|Youth skateboarding in Mexico]]
[[File:Students of Peru discussing about agriculture issues..jpg|thumb|Students of Peru discuss agricultural issues.]]
In much of sub-Saharan Africa, the term "youth" is associated with young men from 12 to 30 or 35 years of age. [[Youth in Nigeria]] includes all members of the Federal Republic of Nigeria aged 18–35.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nigeria 2009 National Youth Policy|url= http://www.youthpolicy.org/national/Nigeria_2009_National_Youth_Policy.pdf}}</ref> Many African girls experience youth as a brief interlude between the onset of [[puberty]] and [[marriage]] and [[motherhood]]. But in urban settings, poor women are often considered youth much longer, even if they bear children outside of marriage. Varying culturally, the gender constructions of youth in Latin America and Southeast Asia differ from those of sub-Saharan Africa. In Vietnam, widespread notions of youth are sociopolitical constructions for both sexes between the ages of 15 and 35.<ref name="ReferenceA">Dalsgaard, Anne Line Hansen, Karen Tranberg. "Youth and the City in the Global South" In Tracking Globalization. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 2008: 9</ref>
In [[Brazil]], the term ''youth'' refers to people of both sexes from 15 to 29 years old. This age bracket reflects the influence on Brazilian law of international organizations like the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO). It is also shaped by the notion of adolescence that has entered everyday life in Brazil through a discourse on children's rights.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
The [[OECD]] defines ''youth'' as "those between 15 and 29 years of age".<ref>OECD.org.[http://www.oecd.org/youth.htm ''OECD work on Youth''].</ref><ref>{{cite web|website = OECD Family Database |url = https://www.oecd.org/els/soc/CO_3_5_Young_people_not_in_education_or_employment.pdf |title=Young people not in education or employment|date = 2018}}</ref>
August 12 was declared [[International Youth Day]] by the United Nations.
==Youth rights==
{{Main|Youth rights}}
{{Youth rights sidebar}}
[[Children's rights]] cover all the rights that belong to children. When they grow up, they are granted new rights (like voting, consent, driving, etc.) and duties (criminal response, etc.). There are different [[minimum]] limits of age at which youth are not free, independent or legally competent to take some decisions or actions. Some of these limits are: [[voting age]], [[age of candidacy]], [[age of consent]], [[age of majority]], [[age of criminal responsibility]], [[drinking age]], [[driving age]], etc. After youth reach these limits, they are free to vote, have sexual intercourse, buy or consume alcoholic beverages or drive [[cars]], etc.
===Voting age===
{{Main|Voting age}}
[[Voting age]] is the [[minimum age]] established by law that a person must attain to be eligible to [[Suffrage|vote in a public election]]. Typically, the age is set at 18 years; however, ages as low as 16 and as high as 21 exist (see list below). Studies show that 21% of all 18-year-olds have experience with voting. This is an important right since, by voting, they can support politics selected by themselves and not only by people of older generations.
===Age of candidacy===
{{Main|Age of candidacy}}
[[Age of candidacy]] is the minimum age at which a person can legally qualify to hold certain elected government offices. In many cases, it also determines the age at which a person may be [[nomination rules|eligible to stand]] for an election or be granted [[ballot access]].
===Age of consent===
{{Main|Age of consent}}
The [[age of consent]] is the age at which a person is considered [[legally competent]] to consent to [[Human sexual activity|sexual acts]], and is thus the minimum age of a person with whom another person is legally permitted to engage in sexual activity. The distinguishing aspect of the age of consent laws is that the person below the minimum age is regarded as the victim, and their sex partner as the offender.
=== Defense of infancy ===
{{Main|Defense of infancy}}
The [[defense of infancy]] is a form of [[defense (legal)|defense]] known as an [[excuse]] so that [[defendant]]s falling within the definition of an "[[infant]]" are excluded from [[crime|criminal]] [[legal liability|liability]] for their [[action (philosophy)|action]]s, if at the relevant time, they had not reached an age of criminal responsibility. This implies that children lack the judgment that comes with age and experience to be held criminally responsible. After reaching the initial age, there may be levels of responsibility dictated by age and the type of offense committed.
=== Drinking age ===
{{Main|Drinking age}}
The [[Drinking age|legal drinking age]] is the age at which a person can consume or purchase [[alcoholic beverage]]s. These laws cover a wide range of issues and behaviors, addressing when and where alcohol can be consumed. The minimum age alcohol can be legally consumed can be different from the age when it can be purchased in some countries. These laws vary among different countries and many laws have exemptions or special circumstances. Most laws apply only to drinking alcohol in public places, with alcohol consumption in the home being mostly unregulated (an exception being the UK, which has a minimum legal age of five for supervised consumption in private places).  Some countries also have different age limits for different types of alcoholic drinks.<ref name="Icap Reports 4">[http://www.icap.org/portals/0/download/all_pdfs/icap_reports_english/report4.pdf Drinking Age Limits] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120062253/http://www.icap.org/portals/0/download/all_pdfs/icap_reports_english/report4.pdf |date=2013-01-20 }} – International Center for Alcohol Policies</ref>
===Driving age===
{{Main|Driving age}}
[[Driving age]] is the age at which a person can apply for a [[driver's license]]. Countries with the lowest driving ages (below 17) are [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], Canada, [[El Salvador]], Iceland, [[Israel]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]], [[Malaysia]], [[New Zealand]], the Philippines, [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Slovenia]], the United Kingdom (Mainland) and the United States. The Canadian province of Alberta and several U.S. states permit youth driving as low as 14. [[Niger]] has the highest minimum driving age in the world at 23. In India, driving is legal after getting a license at the age of 18.
===Legal working age===
{{Main|Legal working age}}
{{See also|Right to work}}
The '''legal working age''' is the minimum age required by [[law]] for a person to work in each [[country]] or [[jurisdiction]]. The threshold of adulthood, or "the [[age of majority]]" as recognized or declared in law in most countries, has been set at age 18.  Some types of labor are commonly prohibited even for those above the working age, if they have not reached the age of majority. Activities that are dangerous, harmful to the [[health]] or that may affect the [[morals]] of [[Minor (law)|minors]] fall into this category.
===Student rights in higher education===
{{Main|Student rights in higher education}}
[[Student rights]] are those [[rights]], such as civil, constitutional, contractual and consumer rights, which regulate student rights and freedoms and allow [[student]]s to make use of their educational investment. These include such things as the right to free speech and association, to due process, equality, [[autonomy]], safety and privacy, and accountability in contracts and advertising, which regulate the treatment of students by teachers and administrators.
=== Smoking age ===
{{Main|Smoking age}}
The smoking age is the minimum age a person can buy [[tobacco]] and/or smoke in public. Most countries regulate this law at the national level while at some point it is done by the state or province.
== School and education ==
{{Main|Schooling}}
Young people spend much of their lives in educational settings, and their experiences in schools, colleges and universities can shape much of their subsequent lives.<ref name=Furlong3>{{cite book|last1=Furlong|first1=Andy|title=Youth Studies: An Introduction|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=USA|isbn=978-0-415-56476-2|pages=48–49}}</ref> Research shows that [[poverty]] and income affect the likelihood for the incompletion of high school. These factors also increase the likelihood for the youth to not go to a college or university.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Njapa-Minyard|first=Pamela|title=After-school Programs: Attracting and Sustaining Youth Participation|journal=International Journal of Learning|year=2010|volume=17|issue=9|pages=177–182|url=http://ijl.cgpublisher.com/product/pub.30/prod.2958|access-date=2013-08-16|archive-date=2017-06-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630231826/http://ijl.cgpublisher.com/product/pub.30/prod.2958|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the United States, 12.3 percent of young people ages 16 to 24 are disconnected, meaning they are neither in school nor working.<ref>Sarah Burd-Sharps and Kristen Lewis. ''[http://www.measureofamerica.org/youth-disconnection-2017/ Promising Gains, Persistent Gaps: Youth Disconnection in America.]'' 2017. [[Measure of America]] of the Social Science Research Council.</ref>
===Health and mortality===
[[File:The south african GENERATION Y.jpg|thumb|Youths in South Africa partying]]
The leading causes of morbidity and mortality among youth and adults are due to certain health-risk behaviors. These behaviors are often established during youth and extend into adulthood. Since the risk behaviors in adulthood and youth are interrelated, problems in adulthood are preventable by influencing youth behavior.
A 2004 [[Death|mortality]] study of youth (defined in this study as ages 10–24) mortality worldwide found that 97% of deaths occurred in low to middle-income countries, with the majority in southeast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Maternal conditions accounted for 15% of female deaths, while [[HIV/AIDS]] and [[tuberculosis]] were responsible for 11% of deaths; 14% of male and 5% of female deaths were attributed to traffic accidents, the largest cause overall. Violence accounted for 12% of male deaths. [[Suicide]] was the cause of 6% of all deaths.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Global patterns of mortality in young people: a systematic analysis of population health data|journal=The Lancet|date=September 2009|volume=374|issue=9693|pages=881–892|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60741-8|pmid=19748397|url=http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2809%2960741-8/abstract|last1=Patton|first1=George C.|last2=Coffey|first2=Carolyn|last3=Sawyer|first3=Susan M.|last4=Viner|first4=Russell M.|last5=Haller|first5=Dagmar M.|last6=Bose|first6=Krishna|last7=Vos|first7=Theo|last8=Ferguson|first8=Jane|last9=Mathers|first9=Colin D.|s2cid=15161702}}</ref>
The U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] developed its Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS) in 2003 to help assess risk behavior.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/yrbs/brief.htm|title=Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS)|publisher=CDC|website = Adolescent and School Health|date = 22 August 2018}}</ref> YRBSS monitors six categories of priority health-risk behaviors among youth and young adults. These are behaviors that contribute to unintentional [[injuries]] and [[violence]];
* [[Youth smoking|tobacco]], [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]] and other [[Substance abuse|drug use]];
* [[sexual behaviors]] that contribute to [[unintended pregnancy]] and [[sexually transmitted disease]]s (STDs), including human immunodeficiency virus ([[HIV]]) infection;
* unhealthy dietary behaviors;
* [[physical inactivity]]—plus [[overweight]].
YRBSS includes a national school-based survey conducted by CDC as well as state and local school-based surveys conducted by education and health agencies.<ref>Grunbaum, J.A., Kann, L., Kinchen, S., Ross, J., Hawkins, J., Lowry, R., Harris, W.A., McManus, T., Chyen, D., Collins, J. (2004) Youth risk behavior surveillance—United States, 2003. ''MMWR. Surveillance Summaries'', 53(2), 1–96.</ref>
Universal school-based interventions such as formal classroom curricula, behavioural management practices, role‐play, and goal‐setting may be effective in preventing tobacco use, alcohol use, illicit drug use, antisocial behaviour, and improving physical activity of young people.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=MacArthur G, Caldwell DM, Redmore J, Watkins SH, Kipping R, White J, Chittleborough C, Langford R, Er V, Lingam R, Pasch K, Gunnell D, Hickman M, Campbell R |title=Individual-, family-, and school-level interventions targeting multiple risk behaviours in young people |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=5 October 2018 |volume=2018 |issue=10 |pages=CD009927 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009927.pub2 |pmid=30288738 |pmc=6517301}}</ref>
=== Diabetes ===
[[Type 1 diabetes]] (T1D) is an [[autoimmune disease]] that occurs when [[Pancreas|pancreatic]] cells, also called [[beta cell]]s, are destroyed by the [[immune system]]. Beta cells are responsible to produce [[insulin]], which is required by the body to convert blood sugar into energy. Symptoms associated with T1D include frequent urination, increased hunger and thirst, weight loss, blurry vision, and tiredness.<ref>"Type 1 diabetes", ''Wikipedia'', 2024-11-15, retrieved 2024-11-15{{deprecated inline|date=November 2024|certain=yes}}</ref>
[[Type 2 diabetes]] (T2D) is characterized by high blood sugar and insulin resistance. This is not an autoimmune disease and is mostly a result of obesity and lack of exercise.
Exercise is a crucial addition to a child's everyday routine. It can increase the overall [[psychosocial]] well-being, metabolic health and cardiovascular benefits. [[American College of Sports Medicine]] recommends at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous intensity each day. Recommended activities include running, bicycle riding and team sports. Furthermore, at least 3 days of bone and muscle strengthening activities should be incorporated.<ref name=Chinchilla>Chinchilla, P., Dovc, K., Braune, K., Addala, A., Riddell, M. C., Jeronimo Dos Santos, T., & Zaharieva, D. P. (2023). Perceived Knowledge and Confidence for Providing Youth-Specific Type 1 Diabetes Exercise Recommendations amongst Pediatric Diabetes Healthcare Professionals: An International, Cross-Sectional, Online Survey. [https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/8462291 ''Pediatric Diabetes''], 1–8.</ref>
Unfortunately, in reality a large percentage of T1D youth population is not meeting this guideline. Common barriers include fear of [[hypoglycemia]], loss of glucose stability, low fitness levels, insufficient or inadequate knowledge of strategies to prevent hypoglycemia, lack of time, and lack of confidence in the topic of exercise management in type 1 diabetes.<ref name=Chinchilla/>
Many [[Health and Care Professions Council]] members who work with children aren't educated enough about diabetes in children and exercise recommendations. It is important for parents to educate themselves to support their children throughout this chapter of their lives.
Structured exercises lasting longer than 60 minutes can reduce [[Glycated hemoglobin|HbA1c]] levels and insulin dose per day. Moderate activities can increase cardiorespiratory fitness in children which is crucial for their future health. Cardiorespiratory fitness reduces the risk of other diseases, such as microvascular complications and [[cardiovascular disease]]s.<ref>García-Hermoso, A., Ezzatvar, Y., Huerta-Uribe, N., Alonso-Martínez, A. M., Chueca-Guindulain, M. J., Berrade-Zubiri, S., Izquierdo, M., & Ramírez-Vélez, R. (2023). Effects of exercise training on glycaemic control in youths with type 1 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. ''European Journal of Sport Science'', ''23''(6), 1056–1067.</ref>
To avoid a possible type 2 diabetes, children are encouraged to keep their [[Body Mass Index|BMI]] and [[adipose tissue]] percentage at normal levels. Exercising regularly improves insulin resistance, reduces blood glucose levels, and keep an individual at a healthy weight to stay away from a possible T2D diagnosis.<ref>Aran Wong. (2024). Role of Physical Activity in the Management and Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes. ''International Journal of Medicine & Science of Physical Activity & Sport / Revista Internacional de Medicina y Ciencias de La Actividad Física y Del Deporte'', ''24''(96), 166–180</ref>
===Obesity===
{{main|Childhood obesity}}
[[Obesity]] now affects one in five children in the United States, and is the most prevalent nutritional disease of children and adolescents in the United States. Although obesity-associated morbidities occur more frequently in adults, significant consequences of obesity as well as the antecedents of adult disease occur in obese children and adolescents.
Discrimination against overweight children begins early in childhood and becomes progressively institutionalized. Obese children may be taller than their non-overweight peers, in which case they are apt to be viewed as more mature. The inappropriate expectations that result may have an adverse effect on their socialization.
Many of the cardiovascular consequences that characterize adult-onset obesity are preceded by abnormalities that begin in childhood. [[Hyperlipidemia]], [[hypertension]], and abnormal [[glucose tolerance]] occur with increased frequency in obese children and adolescents. The relationship of cardiovascular risk factors to visceral fat independent of total body fat remains unclear. [[Sleep apnea]], [[pseudotumor cerebri]], and [[Blount's disease]] represent major sources of morbidity for which rapid and sustained weight reduction is essential. Although several periods of increased risk appear in childhood, it is not clear whether obesity with onset early in childhood carries a greater risk of adult morbidity and mortality.<ref>William, H. (1998) Health Consequences of Obesity in Youth: Childhood Predictors of Adult Disease, ''Pediatrics'', 101(2), 518–525.</ref>
===Bullying===
[[Bullying]] among school-aged youth is increasingly being recognized as an important problem affecting well-being and social functioning. While a certain amount of conflict and harassment is typical of youth peer relations, bullying presents a potentially more serious threat to healthy youth development. The definition of bullying is widely agreed on in literature on bullying.<ref>Boulton MJ, Underwood K. Bully/victim problems among middle school children. Br J Educ Psychol.1992;62:73–87.</ref><ref>Olweus D. Aggression in the Schools: Bullies and Whipping Boys. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing Corp; 1978.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Salmivalli|first1= C|last2= Kaukiainen|first2=A|last3= Kaistaniemi |first3=L|last4= Lagerspetz |first4=KM|title= Self-evaluated self-esteem, peer-evaluated self-esteem, and defensive egotism as predictors of adolescents' participation in bullying situations|journal= Pers Soc Psychol Bull|date=1999|volume=25|issue= 10|pages =1268–1278|doi= 10.1177/0146167299258008|s2cid= 145521375}}</ref><ref>Slee PT. Bullying in the playground: the impact of inter-personal violence on Australian children's perceptions of their play environment.  Child Environ.1995;12:320–327.</ref>
[[File:Bullying on Instituto Regional Federico Errázuriz (IRFE) in March 5, 2007.jpg|thumb|Bullying often happens in schools]]
The majority of [[research]] on bullying has been conducted in Europe and Australia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Biswas |first1=Tuhin |last2=Scott |first2=James G. |last3=Munir |first3=Kerim |last4=Thomas |first4=Hannah J. |last5=Huda |first5=M. Mamun |last6=Hasan |first6=Md. Mehedi |last7=David de Vries |first7=Tim |last8=Baxter |first8=Janeen |last9=Mamun |first9=Abdullah A. |date=2020-02-17 |title=Global variation in the prevalence of bullying victimisation amongst adolescents: Role of peer and parental supports |journal=eClinicalMedicine |volume=20 |pages=100276 |doi=10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100276 |issn=2589-5370 |pmc=7152826 |pmid=32300737}}</ref> Considerable variability among countries in the prevalence of bullying has been reported. In an international survey of adolescent health-related behaviors, the percentage of students who reported being bullied at least once during the current term ranged from a low of 15% to 20% in some countries to a high of 70% in others.<ref>King A, Wold B, Tudor-Smith C, Harel Y. The Health of Youth: A Cross-National Survey. Canada: WHO Library Cataloguing; 1994. WHO Regional Publications, European Series No. 69.</ref><ref>US Department of Education. 1999 Annual Report on School Safety. Washington, DC: US Dept of Education; 1999:1–66.</ref> Of particular concern is frequent bullying, typically defined as bullying that occurs once a week or more. The prevalence of frequent bullying reported internationally ranges from a low of 1.9% among one Irish sample to a high of 19% in a Malta study.<ref>Borg MG. The extent and nature of bullying among primary and secondary schoolchildren.  Educ Res.1999;41:137–153.</ref><ref>Kaltiala-Heino R, Rimpela M, Marttunen M, Rimpela A, Rantanen P. Bullying, depression, and suicidal ideation in Finnish adolescents: school survey.  BMJ.1999;319:348–351.</ref><ref>Menesini E, Eslea M, Smith PK.  et al.  Cross-national comparison of children's attitudes towards bully/victim problems in school.  Aggressive Behav.1997;23:245–257.</ref><ref>Olweus D. Bullying at School: What We Know and What We Can Do. Oxford, England: Blackwell; 1993.</ref><ref>O'Moore AM, Smith KM. Bullying behaviour in Irish schools: a nationwide study.  Ir J Psychol.1997;18:141–169.</ref><ref>Whitney I, Smith PK. A survey of the nature and extent of bullying in junior/middle and secondary schools.  Educ Res.1993;34:3–25.</ref>
Research examining characteristics of youth involved in bullying has consistently found that both bullies and those bullied demonstrate poorer [[psychosocial]] functioning than their non-involved peers. Youth who bully others tend to demonstrate higher levels of conduct problems and dislike of school, whereas youth who are bullied generally show higher levels of [[Emotional insecurity|insecurity]], [[anxiety]], [[Depression in childhood and adolescence|depression]], [[loneliness]], [[unhappiness]], physical and mental symptoms, and low [[self-esteem]]. Males who are bullied also tend to be physically weaker than males in general. The few studies that have examined the characteristics of youth who both bully and are bullied found that these individuals exhibit the poorest psychosocial functioning overall.<ref>Austin S, Joseph S. Assessment of bully/victim problems in 8 to 11 year-olds.  Br J Educ Psychol.1996;66:447–456.</ref><ref>Forero R, McLellan L, Rissel C, Bauman A. Bullying behaviour and psychosocial health among school students in New South Wales, Australia: cross sectional survey.  BMJ.1999;319:344–348.</ref><ref>Kumpulainen K, Rasanen E, Henttonen I.  et al.  Bullying and psychiatric symptoms among elementary school-age children.  Child Abuse Negl.1998;22:705–717.</ref><ref>Haynie DL, Nansel TR, Eitel P.  et al.  Bullies, victims, and bully/victims: distinct groups of youth at-risk.  J Early Adolescence.2001;21:29–50.</ref>
{{see also|School bullying}}
===Sexual health and politics===
====General====
[[Globalization]] and transnational flows have had tangible effects on sexual relations, identities, and subjectivities. In the wake of an increasingly globalized world order under waning Western dominance, within ideologies of modernity, civilization, and programs for social improvement, discourses on [[Human population control|population control]], '[[safe sex]]', and '[[Sexual and reproductive health and rights|sexual rights]]'.<ref>Petchesky, R. (2000) 'Sexual rights: inventing a concept, mapping an international practice,' in R. Parker, R.M. Barbosa and P. Aggleton (eds), ''Framing the sexual subject: The politics of Gender, Sexuality and Power'', Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 81–103</ref> [[Sex education]] programmes grounded in evidence-based approaches are a cornerstone in reducing adolescent sexual risk behaviours and promoting sexual health. In addition to providing accurate information about consequences of [[Sexually transmitted disease]] or STIs and [[Teenage pregnancy|early pregnancy]], such programmes build life skills for interpersonal communication and decision making. Such programmes are most commonly implemented in schools, which reach large numbers of teenagers in areas where school enrollment rates are high. However, since not all young people are in school, sex education programmes have also been implemented in clinics, juvenile detention centers and youth-oriented community agencies. Notably, some programmes have been found to reduce risky sexual behaviours when implemented in both school and community settings with only minor modifications to the curricula.<ref>Bearinger, Linda H., et al. 2007. "Global perspectives on the sexual and reproductive health of adelescents: patterns, prevention, and potential." ''The Lancet 369.9568: 1226''</ref>
==In the Global South==
The vast majority of young people live in [[Developing country|developing countries]]: according to the [[United Nations]], globally around 85 per cent of 15- to 25-year-olds live in developing countries, a figure projected to grow 89.5 per cent by 2025. Moreover, this majority are extremely diverse: some live in rural areas but many inhabit the overcrowded metropolises of [[India]], [[Youth in Mongolia|Mongolia]] and other parts of Asia and in South America, some live traditional lives in [[tribal societies]], while others participate in global youth culture in [[ghetto]] contexts.<ref name=Furlong4>{{cite book|last1=Furlong|first1=Andy|title=Youth Studies: An Introduction|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|location=USA|isbn=978-0-415-56476-2|pages=227–228}}</ref>
Many young lives in developing countries are defined by poverty, some suffer from famine and a lack of clean water, while involvement in armed conflict is all common. Health problems are rife, especially due to the prevalence of [[HIV/AIDS]] in certain regions. The United Nations estimates that 200 million young people live in poverty, 130 million are illiterate and 10 million live with HIV/AIDS.<ref name=Furlong4/>
==See also==
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* ''[[Children, Youth and Environments]]''
* [[Comprehensive sex education]]
* [[Index of youth articles]]
* [[Positive youth development]]
* [[Youth activism]]
* [[Youth Climate Movement]]
* [[Youth culture]]
* [[Youth politics]]
* [[Youth unemployment]]
* [[Youth voice]]
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==References==
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==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{commons category-inline|Youth}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548x7 "Youth"], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Tim Whitmarsh, Thomas Healy and Deborah Thom (''In Our Time'', Apr. 23, 2003)
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{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Youth| ]]