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{{About|the town in Qatar|the settlement in Fujairah|Zubarah, Fujairah}}
{{Infobox settlement
<!-- See Template:Infobox settlement for additional fields and descriptions -->
| name                    = Zubarah
| official_name           =
| native_name             = الزبارة
| native_name_lang        = ar
| other_name              = Al Zubarah<br />Az Zubarah
| settlement_type         = Ruined town
<!-- images, nickname, motto -->
| image_skyline           = Zubara Fort.jpg
| imagesize               = 250px
| image_alt               =
| image_caption           = The iconic [[Al Zubarah Fort]].
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| image_map               = Al Zubarah.png
| mapsize                 = 250px
| map_alt                 =
| map_caption             = Geographical location of '''Zubarah'''.
| image_map1              = Al Shamal in Qatar.svg
| mapsize1                = 250px
| map_alt1                =
| map_caption1            = [[Al Shamal]] in Qatar.
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| coordinates             = {{coord|25|58|43|N|51|01|35|E|region:QA|display=inline,title}}
| coor_pinpoint           =
| subdivision_type        = Country
| subdivision_name        = [[Qatar]]
| subdivision_type1       = [[Municipalities of Qatar|Municipality]]
| subdivision_name1       = [[Al Shamal]]
| subdivision_type2       = Zone no.
| subdivision_name2       = [[Zone 78, Qatar|78]]
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| area_total_km2          = 4.6
| area_land_km2           = 4
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| population_note         =
| population_demonym      = Zubaran <br /> Al Zubaran
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| website                 =
<!-- designation -->
| footnotes               = {{designation list | embed = yes
| designation1            = WHS
| designation1_offname    = Al Zubarah Archaeological Site
| designation1_date       = [[List of World Heritage Sites by year of inscription#2013 (37th session)|2013]] (37th [[World Heritage Committee|session]])
| designation1_type       = Cultural
| designation1_criteria   = iii, iv, v
| designation1_number     = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1402 1402]
| designation1_free1name  = Region
| designation1_free1value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Western Asia|Western Asia]]
}}
}}
'''Zubarah''' ({{langx|ar|الزبارة}}), also referred to as '''Al Zubarah''' or '''Az Zubarah''', is a ruined, ancient town located on the northwestern coast of the [[Qatar]] peninsula in the [[Al Shamal]] municipality, about {{convert|65|mile|km|0|disp=or}} from the capital [[Doha]]. It was founded by Shaikh Muhammed bin Khalifa, the founder father of [[Al Khalifa]] royal family of Bahrain, the principal [[Utub]] tribe in the first half of the eighteenth century.<ref name="auto2">تاريخ نجد – خالد الفرج الدوسري – ص 239</ref><ref name="Rihani, Ameen Fares 1930 page 297">Rihani, Ameen Fares (1930), Around the coasts of Arabia,  Houghton Mifflin Company, page 297</ref><ref name="Arabian Frontiers p44">Arabian Frontiers: The Story of Britain’s Boundary Drawing in the Desert, John C Wilkinson, p44</ref><ref name="auto1">قلائد النحرين في تاريخ البحرين تأليف ناصر بن جوهر بن مبارك الخيري، تقديم ودراسة عبدالرحمن بن عبدالله الشقير،2003، ص 215.</ref><ref name="auto3">المصالح البريطانية في الكويت حتى عام 1939، أحمد حسن جودة، ترجمة حسن النجار، مطبعة الارشاد، بغداد، 1979، ص 35</ref> It was designated a [[UNESCO]] [[List of World Heritage Sites in Western Asia|World Heritage Site]] in 2013.<ref name="ds"/>
It was once a successful center of global trade and [[Pearl hunting|pearl fishing]] positioned midway between the [[Strait of Hormuz]] and the west arm of the [[Persian Gulf]]. It is one of the most extensive and best-preserved examples of an 18th–19th century settlement in the region. The layout and urban fabric of the settlement have been preserved in a manner unlike any other settlements in the Persian Gulf, providing insight into the urban life, spatial organization, and the social and economic history of the Persian Gulf before the discovery of oil and gas in the 20th century.<ref>Richter, T., Wordsworth, P. D. & Walmsley, A. G. 2011: Pearlfishers, townsfolk, Bedouin and Shaykhs: economic and social relations in Islamic Al-Zubarah. P. 2. In Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 41, p. 1-16</ref>
Covering an area of around 400 hectares (60 hectares inside the outer town wall), Zubarah is Qatar's most substantial [[archaeological site]]. The site comprises the fortified town with a later inner and an earlier outer wall, a harbour, a sea canal, two screening walls, [[Qal'at Murair]] (Murair fort), and the more recent [[Zubarah Fort]].<ref name="miri.ku.dk">{{cite web|url=http://miri.ku.dk/projekts/qiahp/|title=Qatar Islamic Archaeology and Heritage Project|publisher=University of Copenhagen|access-date=14 February 2015|date=2010-10-11}}</ref>
==History==
===Early history===
Zubarah, derived from the [[Arabic]] word for 'sand mounds', was presumably given its name due to its abundance of sand and stony hillocks.<ref name="emporium">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/201306/the.pearl.emporium.of.al.zubarah.htm|title=The Pearl Emporium of Al Zubarah|magazine=Saudi Aramco World|date=December 2013|access-date=1 March 2015}}</ref> During the early Islamic period, trade and commerce boomed in northern Qatar. Settlements began to appear on the coast, primarily between the towns of Zubarah and [[Umm Al Maa]]. A village dating back to the Islamic period was discovered near the town.<ref name="rahman">{{cite book|last=Rahman|first=Habibur|title=The Emergence Of Qatar|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|pages=33–34|isbn=978-0710312136}}</ref>
Between September 1627 and April 1628, a Portuguese naval squadron led by D. Goncalo da Silveira set several neighboring coastal villages ablaze. Zubarah's settlement and growth during this period is attributed to the dislodging of people from these adjacent settlements.<ref>Rahman, p. 47</ref>
=== Arrival of Al Khalifa of the Utub tribe  ===
There remains some uncertainty over the earliest mention of Zubarah in written documents. ''Qatar's Memorial'', a 1986 Arabic history book, alleges that a functional self-governing town existed before the arrival of the Utub.<ref name="fraudulent">{{cite book|last=Reisman|first=W. Michael|title=Fraudulent Evidence before Public International Tribunals: The Dirty Stories of International Law (Hersch Lauterpacht Memorial Lectures)|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R-ZSAwAAQBAJ|year=2014|page=167|isbn=978-1107063396}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/87/11051.pdf|title=Court memorial submitted by Bahrain|publisher=International Court of Justice|access-date=6 May 2015}}</ref> It supported this claim by invoking two purported historical documents, but they were later found to be [[Forgery|forgeries]] produced by Qatar in an attempt to gain leverage over Bahrain in their long-standing dispute over the sovereignty of the town.<ref name="fraudulent"/>
Zubarah was founded and ruled by the Al Khalifa branch of the Utub tribe,<ref name="Rihani, Ameen Fares 1930 page 297"/><ref name="Arabian Frontiers p44"/><ref name="auto2"/><ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto3"/> who migrated from Kuwait to Zubarah in 1732,<ref name="auto">تاريخ آل خليفة في البحرين - الشيخ عبدالله بن خالد آل خليفة والدكتور علي أبا حسين، الجزء الثاني، ص 18</ref> helping to build a large town characterized by a safe harbour. It soon emerged as one of the principal emporiums and pearl trading centres of the [[Persian Gulf]].<ref>Al Khalifa, A.b.K. & Hussain A.A. 1993. The Utoob in the eighteenth century. Pages 301–334 in A.b.K. Al Khalifa & M. Rice (eds), Bahrain through the ages: the history. London: Kegan Paul.</ref><ref>Abu Hakima A.M. 1965. History of Eastern Arabia 1750–1800. The Rise and Development of Bahrain and Kuwait. Beirut: Khayats.</ref><ref>Lorimer J.G. 1915. Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman and Central Arabia. i. Historical. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent Government Printing</ref>
=== Al Khalifa rule of Zubarah===
[[File:Zubarah ruins site.jpg|thumb|Ruins in Zubarah.]]
The Al Khalifa, migrated from [[Kuwait]] and settled at Zubarah in 1732.<ref name="auto"/> They founded and ruled the town of Zubarah<ref name="Rihani, Ameen Fares 1930 page 297"/><ref name="Arabian Frontiers p44"/><ref name="auto2"/><ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto3"/> and its port making it one of the most important ports and pearl trading centers in the Persian Gulf in the 18th century. They also expanded their settlements, and constructed walls and a fort outside Zubarah called [[Qal'at Murair]] (Murair Castle), the name is derived from a water spring in the Bani Sulaim area next to Madina Al Munawara in today's Saudi Arabia also known as Herat Bani Sulaim.
The Al Khalifa were the original dominant group controlling Zubarah, they were a politically important group that moved back and forth between Qatar and Bahrain,<ref name="Arabia's Frontiers p44">{{Cite book
|last=Wilkinson
|first=John Craven
|year=1991
|title=Arabia's frontiers: the story of Britain's boundary drawing in the desert
|publisher=I.B. Tauris
|page=44}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book
|last=Rihani
|first=Ameen Fares
|author-link=Ameen Rihani
|year=1930
|title=Around the coasts of Arabia
|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company
|page=297}}</ref> originally the center of power of the Bani Utbah. The Al Bin Ali, another branch of Bani Utbah, were also known for their courage, persistence, and abundant wealth.<ref>Arabian Studies By R.B. Serjeant, R.L. Bidwell, p67</ref>
Under their jurisdiction, the town developed trade links with India, [[Oman]], Iraq and Kuwait. Many goods, including dates, spices, and metals, were transported through its ports.{{sfn|Rahman|2005|p=50}} The town soon became a favorite transit point for traders after the [[Utub]] abolished trade taxes. The town's prosperity further increased after the [[Ottoman–Persian War (1775–1776)|1775–1776 Persian occupation of Basra]] when merchants and other refugees fleeing from Basra settled in Zubarah.{{sfn|Rahman|2005|p=51}} Among these merchants was Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Husain ibn Rizq, who participated in the town's administration for a period. He had requested that his personal biographer, Uthman ibn Sanad al-Basri, come to the town to serve as the supreme judge. Al-Basri's biography, first published in 1813, provided information pertaining to the development of the town under ibn Rizq's administration. He also maked note of several prominent scholars who migrated to the town, such as Abd al-Djalil al-Tabatabai.<ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=World heritage review |url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002278/227867e.pdf|title=World Heritage|publisher=UNESCO|volume=72|page=36|date=June 2014|access-date=5 July 2018}}</ref>
Inhabitants from nearby settlements, including wealthy merchants, migrated to Zubarah en masse during the 1770s due to the prevalence of attacks and the plague in the Persian Gulf region.<ref>Richter, T., Wordsworth, P. D. & Walmsley, A. G. 2011: Pearlfishers, townsfolk, Bedouin and Shaykhs: economic and social relations in Islamic Al-Zubarah. P. 4. In Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 41, p. 1-16</ref> Ongoing wars between Bani Khalid and the [[Wahhabi]]s were also a contributing factor that helped Al Zubara flourish into an important trade center.<ref name="khuri"/> This prominent position led to conflicts with adjacent port towns.<ref name="khuri">{{cite book |last=Khuri |first=Fuad Ishaq |title=Tribe and state in Bahrain: The transformation of social and political authority in an Arab state. |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/49926979/Tribe-and-State-in-Bahrain |year=1980 |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location=[[United States of America]] |isbn=0-226-43473-7 |page=24}}</ref>
===1783 Al Khalifa expansion to Bahrain===
{{See also|1783 Bani Utbah invasion of Bahrain}}
A quarrel arose in 1782 between the inhabitants of Zubarah and Persian-ruled Bahrain. Zubarah natives traveled to Bahrain to buy some wood, an altercation broke out, and in the chaos, an Utub sheikh's slave was killed. The Utub and other Arab tribes retaliated on 9 September by plundering and destroying [[Manama]].{{sfn|Rahman|2005|p=51}} A battle was also fought on land between the [[Persians]] and the Arab tribes, in which both sides suffered casualties. The people of Zubarah returned to the mainland after three days with a seized Persian [[gallivat (boat)|gallivat]] that had been used to collect the annual treaty. On 1 October 1782, [[Ali Murad Khan]] ordered the sheikh of Bahrain to prepare a counter-attack against Zubarah and sent him reinforcements from the Persian mainland.<ref name="qasimi">{{cite book|last=Al-Qāsimī|first=Sulṭān ibn Muḥammad|title=Power Struggles and Trade in the Gulf: 1620-1820|publisher=Forest Row|year=1999|page=168}}</ref>
About 2,000 Persian troops arrived in Bahrain by December 1782 and attacked Zubarah on 17 May 1783. After suffering a defeat, the Persians retreated to their ships. An Utub naval fleet from Kuwait arrived in Bahrain the same day, setting Manama ablaze. The Persian forces returned to the mainland to recruit troops for another attack, but the Utub ultimately overran their [[garrison]]s in Bahrain.<ref name="qasimi"/>
The strategist of this battle was Shaikh [[Nasr Al-Madhkur]]. His sword fell into the hands of Salama Bin Saif [[Al Bin Ali]] after his army collapsed and his forces were defeated.<ref>Shaikh Hamad Bin Isa Al-Khalifa, First Light: Modern Bahrain and its Heritage, 1994 p41</ref>
The Al Khalifa conquered and expelled the Persians from Bahrain<ref>the Precis Of Turkish Expansion On The Arab Littoral Of The Persian Gulf And Hasa And Katif Affairs. By J. A. Saldana; 1904, I.o. R R/15/1/724</ref> after defeating them. After the invasion, the Al Khalifa migrated to Bahrain, with Zubarah remaining under their jurisdiction.{{sfn|Rahman|2005|p=52}} The Bani Utbah was already present in Bahrain at that time, settling there during the summer season and purchasing date palm gardens.
[[File:Fortummalmaa.jpg|thumb|An old fort at [[Umm Al Maa]], near Zubarah.]]
Despite the instability surrounding Zubarah after the siege of Zubarah and the conquest of Bahrain in 1783, it flourished as a trading centre and its port grew larger than that of [[Qatif]]'s by 1790.{{sfn|Rahman|2005|p=52}} Al Zubarah developed into a center of [[Islam]]ic education during this century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Al-Dabbagh|first=M. M.|title=Qatar, its past and its present|year=1961|page=11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1856/1/1856.pdf|title=The Development of Education in Qatar, 1950–1970|author=Abdulla Juma Kobaisi|publisher=Durham University|page=31|access-date=17 June 2015}}</ref> The first [[almanac]] produced in Qatar, and one of the earliest preserved local literary works in the nation, was produced here in 1790 – the ''Zubarah Almanac'', authored by the [[Maliki school|Maliki]] [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] scholar ‘Abd al Rahman al-Zawāwī. This calendar outlined the months and days of the year, specified prayer times, and included observations on agriculture and seasonal variations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.qnl.qa/sites/default/files/attachments/Heritage%20EN%20-%20web2020.pdf?HCASScDtxMAwjS_XYEnxRLrFQhRZHkhA|title=Explore our Heritage Library|publisher=Qatar National Library|page=15|accessdate=13 May 2024}}</ref>
The town came under threat from 1780 onward due to the intermittent raids launched by the [[Wahhabism|Wahhabi]] on the Bani Khalid strongholds in nearby [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|al-Hasa]].<ref name="vine1">Vine, P. & Casey, P. 1992: The Heritage of Qatar. P. 29. IMMEL Publishing</ref> The Wahhabi speculated that the population of Zubarah would conspire against the regime in Al-Hasa with the help of the Bani Khalid. They also believed that its residents practiced teachings contrary to the Wahhabi doctrine and regarded the town as an important gateway to the Persian Gulf.{{sfn|Rahman|2005|p=53}} Saudi general Sulaiman ibn Ufaysan led a raid against the town in 1787. In 1792, a massive Wahhabi force conquered Al Hasa, forcing many refugees to flee to Zubarah.<ref name="vine1"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.san.beck.org/16-4-Arabia,Iraq.html|title=Arabia, Yemen, and Iraq 1700-1950|publisher=san.beck.org|access-date=18 January 2015}}</ref> Wahhabi forces besieged Zubarah and several neighboring settlements two years later to punish them for accommodating asylum seekers.<ref name="vine1"/> The local chieftains were allowed to continue carrying out administrative tasks but were required to pay a tax.{{sfn|Rahman|2005|p=54}}
=== Communal life ===
Zubarah was at that time a well-organised town, with many of the streets running at right angles to one another and some [[neighbourhood]]s built according to a strict grid pattern. This layout suggests that the town was laid out and built as part of a major event, although seemingly constructed in closely dated stages.<ref name="Richter, T. P. 6-7">Richter, T., Wordsworth, P. D. & Walmsley, A. G. 2011: Pearlfishers, townsfolk, Bedouin and Shaykhs: economic and social relations in Islamic Al-Zubarah. P. 6-7 in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 41, p. 1-16</ref> An estimate of the population at the height of the town has been calculated to a maximum number of between 6,000 and 9,000 people.<ref name="miri.ku.dk"/>
Most of the settler's dietary requirements were fulfilled by consuming [[livestock]] animals. Remnants of sheep, goat, birds, fish, and [[gazelle]] were among the waste collected from the palatial compounds.<ref name="wh72"/> The wealthiest members of the community consumed mainly livestock, whereas the poorer residents relied on fish as their primary source of protein.<ref name="gillespie2"/> Social, economic, and political activity was most likely centered in the souq.<ref name="wh72"/> The discovery of numerous ceramic tobacco pipe bowls indicates a reluctant acceptance and growing social addiction to smoking tobacco. Coffee pots, mainly of Chinese origin, were used by Zubarah's inhabitants to drink [[Arabic coffee]].<ref name="wh72"/>
=== Later developments and decline (19th century) ===
[[File:Dhow (PSF).png|thumbnail|right|Line drawing of a dhow.]]
[[File:Map of Qatar Peninsula in 1824 - Zubarah.jpg|thumb|An 1824 map denoting "extensive ruins" in Zubarah.]]
The town was occupied by the Wahhabi in 1809.<ref name="emporium"/> After the Wahhabi amir was made aware of advancements by hostile Egyptian troops on the western frontier in 1811, he reduced his garrisons in Bahrain and Zubarah to re-position his troops. [[Said bin Sultan, Sultan of Muscat and Oman|Said bin Sultan]] of Muscat capitalized on this opportunity and attacked the Wahhabi garrisons in the eastern peninsula. The Wahhabi fortification in Zubarah was set ablaze and the Al Khalifa was effectively returned to power.<ref name="Richter, T. P. 5">Richter, T., Wordsworth, P. D. & Walmsley, A. G. 2011: Pearlfishers, townsfolk, Bedouin and Shaykhs: economic and social relations in Islamic Al-Zubarah. P. 5 in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 41, p. 1-16</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023575945.0x0000c7|title='Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol I. Historical. Part IA & IB. J G Lorimer. 1915' [843] (998/1782)|publisher=qdl.qa|access-date=19 January 2014}}</ref> Following the attack, the town was abandoned for a short period. However, later archaeological discoveries indicate that the town may have been partially abandoned shortly before the 1811 attack.<ref name="emporium"/>
From c. 1810 onwards, the British Empire became more influential in the Persian Gulf area, stationing political agents in various ports and cities to protect their trading routes.<ref>James Onley 2004: “The Politics of Protection in the Gulf: The Arab Rulers and the British Resident in the Nineteenth Century” (2004). P.31 in New Arabian Studies (Exeter University Press, 2004), Vol. 6, pp. 30–92</ref> In one of the first descriptions of the salient towns in Qatar, Major Colebrook described Zubarah as such in 1820:{{sfn|Rahman|2005|pp=35–37}}
:"''protected by a tower and occupied at present merely for the security of fishermen that frequent it. It has a Khor (creek) with three fathoms water which [[Boat|Buggalahs]] may enter.''"
Captain George Barnes Brucks also gave his account of Zubarah just four years later. He stated:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/201306/the.pearl.emporium.of.al.zubarah.htm|title=The Pearl Emporium of Al Zubarah|publisher=saudiaramcoworld.com|access-date=14 February 2015}}</ref>
:"''(it was) a large town, now in ruins. It is situated in a bay, and has been, before it was destroyed, a place of considerable trade.''"
Zubarah was eventually resettled in the late 1820s. It remained a pearl fishing community but on a significantly smaller scale than previously.<ref name="Richter, T. P. 5"/> The reconstructed town barely covered 20% of its predecessor. A new town wall was constructed much closer to the shore than the earlier town wall. This phase of Zubarah was not as organized in the layout of the streets and its buildings. Houses were still built in the traditional courtyard form, but on a smaller scale and more irregular in their shape. Additionally, evidence of decorated plaster known from earlier buildings was not found in the newly constructed buildings.<ref>Richter, T., Wordsworth, P. D. & Walmsley, A. G. 2011: Pearlfishers, townsfolk, Bedouin and Shaykhs: economic and social relations in Islamic Al-Zubarah. P. 5-6 in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 41, p. 1-16</ref>
In 1868, the Al Khalifa launched a major [[Qatari–Bahraini War|naval attack]] on the eastern portion of Qatar. In the aftermath of this attack, a sovereignty treaty was signed between the [[House of Thani|Al Thani]] and the British, uniting the entire Qatari Peninsula under the leadership of the Al Thani. Nearly all of the authority that the Al Khalifa held in Zubarah was diminished, except for informal treaties they had signed with a few local tribes.<ref>{{cite book|author-link1=Allen James Fromherz|last=Fromherz|first=Allen James|title=Qatar: A Modern History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q3KK3GBViJAC&pg=PA55|publisher=Georgetown University Press|page=55|year=2012|isbn=978-1589019102}}</ref>
==== Al Khalifa contention ====
[[File:Qatarmap1920.jpg|thumb|left|A map produced in 1920 to illustrate the dispute over the sovereignty of Zubarah.]]
On 16 August 1873, assistant political resident Charles Grant falsely reported that the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] had sent a contingent of 100 troops under the command of Hossein Effendi from [[Qatif]] to Zubarah. This report incensed the emir of Bahrain, as he had previously signed a treaty with the Naim tribe residing in Zubarah in which they agreed to be his subjects, and the report implied that the Ottomans were encroaching on his territory. Upon being questioned by the emir, Grant referred him to political resident Edward Ross. Ross informed the sheikh that he believed he had no right to protect tribes residing in Qatar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023193818.0x000037|title='Persian Gulf Gazetteer, Part I Historical and Political Materials, Précis of Bahrein Affairs, 1854-1904' [35] (54/204)|publisher=qdl.qa|access-date=1 February 2015|date=2014-04-04}}</ref> In September, the emir reiterated his sovereignty over the town and the Kubaisi and Naim tribe. Grant replied by arguing that there was no special mention of the Kubaisi and Naim or Zubarah in any British treaties signed with Bahrain. A government official agreed with his views and concurred "''that it was desirable that the Chief of Bahrain should, as far as practicable abstain from interfering in complications on the mainland.''"<ref name="qdl1">{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023193818.0x000038|title='Persian Gulf Gazetteer, Part I Historical and Political Materials, Précis of Bahrein Affairs, 1854-1904' [36] (55/204)|publisher=qdl.qa|access-date=1 February 2015|date=2014-04-04}}</ref>
The Al Khalifa witnessed another opportunity to renew their claim on the town in 1874 after a Bahraini opposition leader named Nasir bin Mubarak moved to Qatar. They believed that Mubarak, with the assistance of [[Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani]], would attack the Kunaisi,s living in Zubarah as a prelude to an invasion of Bahrain. As a result, a body of Bahraini reinforcements were sent to Zubarah, much to the disapproval of the British who suggested that the emir was involving himself in complications. Edward Ross made it apparent that a government council decision advised the sheikh that he should not interfere in the affairs of Qatar.{{sfn|Rahman|2005|pp=141–142}} However, the Al Khalifa remained in frequent contact with the Naim, drafting 100 tribe members in their army and offering them financial assistance.{{sfn|Rahman|2005|pp=142–143}}
[[File:Ruins in Zubarah on a cloudy day.jpg|thumb|Ruins in Zubarah on a cloudy day.]]
In September 1878, several Zubarans were involved in an act of piracy on a passing boat which resulted in the death of four people. Political resident Edward Ross demanded that the Ottoman authorities punish the townspeople for the crime, and extended an offer of British naval assistance. He met with [[wāli]] Abdullah Pasha in Basra to finalize the deal. Shortly after the British-Ottoman meeting, Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani and Nasir bin Mubarak attacked Zubarah with a force of 2,000 armed men. By 22 October, Jassim bin Mohammed's army, having sacked the town, now surrounded [[Qal'at Murair|Murair Fort]], which was fortified by 500 members of the Kubaisi tribe. The Kubaisi eventually surrendered to Jassim bin Mohammed's forces on unfavorable terms and most of the Zubarah's residents were relocated to Doha.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023575945.0x0000ad|title='Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol I. Historical. Part IA & IB. J G Lorimer. 1915' [817] (972/1782)|publisher=qdl.qa|access-date=8 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023575945.0x0000ae|title='Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol I. Historical. Part IA & IB. J G Lorimer. 1915' [818] (973/1782)|publisher=qdl.qa|access-date=8 May 2015}}</ref> The incident aggravated the ruler of Bahrain due to his treaty with the Kubaisi tribe. There were reports in 1888 that Jassim intended to restore the city so that it could serve as a base for his son-in-law to attack Bahrain, but he renounced his plans after being warned by the British.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bidwell|first=Robin|title=Dictionary Of Modern Arab History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KKrCgxsRBkEC|publisher=Kegan Paul|page=455|year=1998|isbn=978-0710305053}}</ref>
=== Re-settlement of Al Bin Ali at Zubarah in 1895 ===
At the request of Jassim bin Mohammed, several members of the Al Bin Ali, an Utub tribe, relocated from Bahrain to Zubarah in 1895 after renouncing their allegiance to the Bahraini sheikh. The Bahraini sheikh, fearful that Jassim bin Mohammed was preparing to launch an invasion, issued a warning to him and informed the political resident in Bahrain of the dispute. Upon being made aware of the proceedings, the British requested the Ottomans, who had been acting in concert with Jassim bin Mohammed, to abort the settlement. Much to the indignation of the Ottomans, the British sent a naval ship to Zubarah shortly after and seized seven of the Al Bin Ali's boats after the tribe's leader refused to comply with their directive. The Ottoman governor of Zubarah, under the belief that the British were infringing on Ottoman dominion, relayed the events to the [[Sublime Porte|Ottoman Porte]], who began assembling a large army near [[Qatif]]. Jassim bin Mohammed also congregated a large number of boats near the coast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023526379.0x000036|title='Persian Gulf gazetteer. Part 1. Historical and political materials. Précis of Katar [Qatar] affairs, 1873-1904.' [26v] (52/92)|date=10 October 2014 |publisher=Qatar Digital Library|access-date=29 July 2015}}</ref> Subsequently, the governor of Zubarah declared Bahrain as Ottoman territory and threatened that the Porte would provide military support to Qatari tribes who were preparing to launch a naval invasion. This invoked a harsh reprisal from Britain, who, after issuing a written notice, opened fire on Zubarah's port, destroying 44 dhows. The incursion and subsequent Ottoman retreat prompted Jassim bin Mohammed and his army to surrender on unfavorable terms, in which he was instructed to hoist the Trucial flag at Zubarah.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023526379.0x000037|title='Persian Gulf gazetteer. Part 1. Historical and political materials. Précis of Katar [Qatar] affairs, 1873-1904.' [27r] (53/92)|date=10 October 2014 |publisher=Qatar Digital Library|access-date=29 July 2015}}</ref> He was also ordered to pay 30,000 [[rupee]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023526379.0x000038|title=Persian Gulf gazetteer. Part 1. Historical and political materials. Précis of Katar [Qatar] affairs, 1873-1904.' [27v] (54/92)|date=10 October 2014 |publisher=Qatar Digital Library|access-date=29 July 2015}}</ref>
=== Abandonment (20th and 21st century) ===
[[File:Zubarah1937.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Aerial photograph of Zubarah in 1937.]]
[[File:ZubarahArchitecture.jpg|thumb|A [[welcome sign]] in Zubarah.]]
With its population already depleted, much of the remaining population migrated to other regions in Qatar in the early 20th century due to the inadequate water supply in the town.<ref name="gillespie2"/>
[[John Gordon Lorimer (1870-1914)|J.G. Lorimer]]'s ''[[Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman and Central Arabia|Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf]]'' gives the following account of Zubarah in 1908:
{{blockquote|
"A ruined and deserted town on the west side of the Qatar Promontory, about 5 miles south of [[Al Khuwayr|Khor Hassan]]. It stands at the foot of a deep bay of the same name, of which the western point is Ras 'Ashairiq and which contains a small island, also called Zubarah . The town was formerly the stronghold of the Al Khalifah ruling family of Bahrain : its site is still frequented by the Na'im of Bahrain and Qatar. The town was walled and some 10 or 12 forts stood within a radius of 7 miles round it, among them [[Freiha|Faraihah]], Halwan, Lisha, 'Ain Muhammad, [[Qal'at Murair]], [[Ar Rakiyat|Rakaiyat]], Umm-ash-Shuwail and [[Ath Thaqab|Thaghab]] [...]. All of these are now ruinous and deserted, except Thaghab, which the people of Khor Hassan visit to draw water. Murair is said to have been connected with the sea by a creek which enabled sailing boats to discharge their cargoes at its gate, but the inlet is now silted up with sand."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023515721.0x000052|title='Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol. II. Geographical and Statistical. J G Lorimer. 1908' [1952] (2081/2084)|publisher=Qatar Digital Library|access-date=14 February 2019}} ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [[public domain]].''</ref>
}}
In 1937, a conflict broke out between Qatari loyalists and the Naim tribe who had defected to Bahrain, precipitating Bahrain's subsequent territorial claims to Zubarah. A recent proposal that Zubarah becomes an [[oil terminal]] was a contributing factor in the conflict.<ref>{{cite book|last=Peck|first=Malcolm C.|title=Historical Dictionary of the Gulf Arab States|publisher=Scarecrow Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ePXaUo-dnM4C&pg=PA324|page=324|year=2007|isbn=978-0810854635}}</ref> Qatar's emir, [[Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani|Abdullah bin Jassim]], referred to the Bahraini claim on Zubarah as "imaginary" and "not based on logic".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100025783089.0x000015|title='File 4/13 II Zubarah' [8r] (20/543)|date=29 April 2015 |publisher=Qatar Digital Library|access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref> He also alleged that Bahrain assisted the Naim in the form of arms and finances.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100025783089.0x00001d|title='File 4/13 II Zubarah' [12r] (28/543)|date=29 April 2015 |publisher=Qatar Digital Library|access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref> That year, in the aftermath of the conflict and subsequent out-migration, Abdullah bin Jassim commenced the construction of [[Zubarah Fort]] to compensate for the reduced garrison. It was completed in 1938.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thepeninsulaqatar.com/plus/feature-plus/292126/al-zubara-fort|title=Al Zubara Fort|publisher=The Peninsula Qatar|date=19 July 2014|access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref> [[Qal'at Murair]], the hitherto principal fort of the town, was abandoned soon after Zubarah Fort was erected.<ref name="bel15"/>
In the mid-20th century, the political adviser in Bahrain, [[Charles Belgrave]], reported that just a few Bedouin of the Nua‘imi (Naim) tribe lived, albeit nomadically, in the ruined town.<ref name="bel15">Belgrave, C. 1960. Personal Column. London: Hutchinson, Ch. 15.</ref> The area was gradually abandoned towards the end of the 20th century and was used primarily for beach camps.<ref name="rosendahl"/> The fort also housed a coast guard station until the 1980s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vagabondish.com/ancient-ruins-zubarah-city-qatar/|title=Exploring the Ancient Ruins of Qatar's Zubarah City|publisher=vagabondish.com|last=Amor|first=Kirsten|date=2 June 2011|access-date=1 March 2015}}</ref>
== Geography ==
[[File:Zubarah beach on a cloudy day.jpg|thumb|Zubarah Beach on a cloudy day.]]
Zubarah encompasses a 400-hectare stretch on the northwestern coast of the [[Qatar]] peninsula and is located approximately 105&nbsp;km from the Qatari capital [[Doha]]. It is situated over a low, coastal hillock. The two main habitat types are the [[sabkha]] and the stony desert. Historically, fresh water was of scarce availability. In an attempt to amass a water supply, [[Qal'at Murair|Murair Fort]] was constructed 1.8&nbsp;km eastward of the original settlement, on the margins of the desert scarp. The fort served to facilitate wells that tapped the shallow [[Lens (hydrology)|freshwater lenses]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://issuu.com/merciafuoco/docs/qultura_1_dic_2011|title=QULTURA MAGAZINE issue 1|publisher=Qultura Magazine|website=issuu.com|page=64|access-date=7 May 2015}}</ref>
[[Holocene]] deposits are densely scattered in the sabkha and mud plain areas located near the city ruins and the sea. Most of the buildings in Zubarah were constructed using materials from these deposits. An area encompassing the city ruins and the project, which is labeled a proto-sabkha habitat, also contains large quantities of Holocene fossils. [[Eocene]] limestone is predominant further inland where the habitat is a stony, arid desert.<ref name="environment"/>
Zubarah Beach is located near the archaeological site but is open only to those on guided tours.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://newindoha.wordpress.com/2018/02/21/al-zubarah-fort/|title=Al Zubarah Fort Qatar|publisher=New in Doha|date=21 February 2018|access-date=19 February 2019}}</ref>
=== Flora and fauna  ===
Vegetation in Zubarah is sparse, although three of the most recurrent species of seagrasses in the Persian Gulf have been collected and recorded in the area. This includes ''[[Halophila ovalis]]'', ''Halophila stipulacea'' and ''[[Halodule uninervis]]''.<ref name="environment">{{cite web|url=http://ccrs.ku.dk/staff/?pure=files%2F119302626%2FEoS_2011_2012_Environment.pdf|title=Qatar islamic archaeology and heritage project|publisher=University of Copenhagen and Qatar Museums Authority|year=2012|access-date=7 May 2015}}</ref>
A total of c. 48 fish species, 40 [[Molluscs|mollusc]] species, 17 [[reptile]] species, and 170 [[arthropod]] species were recorded in the expanse of the town.<ref name="environment"/> A preliminary investigation of Zubarah uncovered four previously unknown species of [[tardigrade]]s.<ref name="environment"/> Eleven species of [[Heterotardigrada]], a class of the tardigrade, have been found to occur in the area.<ref name="environment"/> [[Uromastyx|Spiny-tailed lizards]] are the most prominent reptile species in the area. They are commonly spotted on vegetation. ''Mesalina brevirostris'', a species of short-nosed lizard, is another reptile species that is densely scattered throughout the area.<ref name="environment"/>
== Economic history ==
=== Pearling activities ===
[[File:Arab pearl divers in the Persian Gulf.jpg|thumb|Pearl diving in the Persian Gulf.]]
Zubarah was primarily an [[Emporium (antiquity)|emporium]] and pearling settlement that capitalized on its proximity to pearl beds, possession of a large harbour, and its central position on the Gulf routes. Its economy depended on the pearl diving season, which took place during the long summer months. Pearling would draw [[Bedouin]] from the interior of Qatar as well as the people from all over the [[Persian Gulf]] to dive, trade, and safeguard the town from attack while the town's men were at sea.<ref name="ReferenceB">Vine, P. & Casey, P. 1992: The Heritage of Qatar. P. 49-55. IMMEL Publishing</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">Bowen R. Le B. 1951: The Pearl Fisheries of the Persian Gulf. In The Middle East Journal 5/2: 161–180.</ref>
Boats from Zubarah would sail out to the pearl beds found all along the southern shore of the Persian Gulf, from Bahrain to the United Arab Emirates. The trips lasted several weeks at a time. Men would work in pairs to harvest [[Mollusca|mollusks]] potentially hiding pearls inside them. A man would dive for about a minute and the other remained on the ship to pull the diver back to safety with his harvest.<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="ReferenceC"/>
The archaeological evidence for pearling on site comes primarily from the tools used by the divers such, as pearl boxes, diving weights, and small measuring weights used during trading.<ref>Walmsley, A.; Barnes, H. & Macumber, P. 2010: Al-Zubarah and its hinterland, north Qatar: excavations and survey, spring 2009. P. 65 in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 40, p.55-68</ref>
=== Global trade ===
Zubarah was the focal point of an extensive regional trade network during its peak in the late eighteenth century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://videnskab.dk/kultur-samfund/danske-arkaeologer-udgraver-skattely-fra-1700-tallet|title=Danske arkæologer udgraver skattely fra 1700-tallet|website=Videnskab.dk|date=12 November 2015|access-date=14 November 2015}}</ref> Until the introduction of the cultured pearl in the early 1900s, the trade in pearls constituted the Persian Gulf's most important industry, employing up to a third of the male population in the region. Zubarah, being one of the focal pearling and trading towns, contributed to the geopolitical, social, and cultural trajectories of Gulf history which shape the region today.<ref name="Richter, T. P. 9">Richter, T., Wordsworth, P. D. & Walmsley, A. G. 2011: Pearlfishers, townsfolk, Bedouin and Shaykhs: economic and social relations in Islamic Al-Zubarah. P. 9 in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 41, p. 1-16</ref><ref name="Walmsley, A. 2009. P. 63-65">Walmsley, A.; Barnes, H. & Macumber, P. 2010: Al-Zubarah and its hinterland, north Qatar: excavations and survey, spring 2009. P. 63-65 in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 40, p.55-68</ref>
Ceramics, coins, and the remains of foodstuffs from the excavations attest to Zubarah's far-reaching trade and economic links in the late 18th century, with material deriving from eastern Asia, Persia, the Ottoman Empire, Africa, Europe, and the Persian Gulf. Diving weights and other material cultures show how closely the connection between the daily life in the town and the pearl fishing and trading were. The discovery of coffee cups and tobacco pipes in the excavations reveals the growing importance of these commodities all over the Persian Gulf during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The etching of a merchant's dhow, the traditional wooden boat of Arabia, found incised into the plaster in a room of a courtyard building, details how intimately the town's inhabitants associated their daily lives with long-distance maritime trade and commerce.<ref name="Richter, T. P. 9"/><ref name="Walmsley, A. 2009. P. 63-65"/> Date trade also had an important role in the local economy.<ref name="wh72"/>
=== Marketplace ===
A complex array of small storage rooms have been identified as part of the souq (market) of Zubarah. The wide variety of trade objects that have been found in the rooms points towards the area's classification as a place of trade. The souq would have been the centre of the town and of its economy.<ref name="ReferenceA">Rees, G., Walmsley, A. G. & Richter, T. 2011: Investigations in the Zubarah Hinterland at Murayr and Furayhah, North-West Qatar. P. 310 in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 41, 309-316</ref> Various commodities, including ironsmithing, were sold at this souq.<ref name="emporium"/>
== Historical architecture ==
=== Infrastructure ===
[[File:ZubarahPalmTreeCeiling.jpg|thumb|Ceiling in a building in Zubarah made from the leaves and trunks of palm trees.]]
The architecture consisted mainly of [[courtyard house]]s, a traditional form of [[Arab people|Arab]]ic [[architecture]] which can be found throughout the Middle East. A series of small rooms were organized around a large central courtyard, where the majority of daily activity took place. Typically, a [[portico]] opened out onto the courtyard on the south side, which offered shelter from the sun. The houses of Zubarah were constructed from soft local stone, or from limestone quarried from the northern settlement of [[Freiha]].<ref name="gillespie1">{{cite book|last1=Gillespie|first1=Frances|last2=Al-Naimi|first2=Faisal Abdulla|title=Hidden in the Sands - Uncovering Qatar's Past|publisher=Medina Publishing|edition=print|year=2013|isbn=978-1909339064|page=42}}</ref> The stone was then protected by a thick gypsum plaster coating. Features such as doorways and niches were decorated with geometric stucco designs. Housing units were accessible by a doorway and a bent [[Hall|corridor]], in order to avert unauthorized viewing into the household, and to prevent sand from blowing into the house. Traces of what seem to be tent placements and/or palm-leaf and palm-matt huts found near the beach may be associated with transient members of the Zubaran society. These interim dwellings likely housed the people who were the primary producers of Zubarah's wealth: the pearl fishers and mariners who harvested the pearl banks each season.<ref>Richter, T., Wordsworth, P. D. & Walmsley, A. G. 2011: Pearlfishers, townsfolk, Bedouin and Shaykhs: economic and social relations in Islamic Al-Zubarah. P. 12 in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 41, p. 1-16</ref>
The most impressive and colossal of the building complexes measures 110 m by 100 m in size and is commonly referred to as 'the palace'.<ref name="gillespie2">{{cite book|last1=Gillespie|first1=Frances|last2=Al-Naimi|first2=Faisal Abdulla|title=Hidden in the Sands - Uncovering Qatar's Past|publisher=Medina Publishing|year=2013|isbn=978-1909339064|page=43}}</ref> This structure follows the same form as the domestic architecture seen elsewhere in Zubarah, but on a much larger scale. Nine interconnected compounds, each comprising a courtyard surrounded by a range of rooms, made up the interior of this structure. Plaster stucco decoration was used to embellish internal entrances and rooms. The discovery of internal staircases indicates that the compounds were multi-[[storey]]ed. The nine compounds of the complex were enclosed by a high circuit wall with circular towers at the four corners, each of which was capable of supporting a small cannon.<ref>Richter, T., Wordsworth, P. D. & Walmsley, A. G. 2011: Pearlfishers, townsfolk, Bedouin and Shaykhs: economic and social relations in Islamic Al-Zubarah. P. 9-11 in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 41, p. 1-16</ref> The size and visual dominance of the palatial compound suggest that it was occupied by a family of wealthy and powerful sheikhs who were community leaders in the social and economic life of the town.<ref>Richter, T., Wordsworth, P. D. & Walmsley, A. G. 2011: Pearlfishers, townsfolk, Bedouin and Shaykhs: economic and social relations in Islamic Al-Zubarah. P. 11 in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 41, p. 1-16</ref>
=== Fortifications ===
[[File:Oldzubarahtower.jpg|thumb|230px|Reconstructed tower in Zubarah.]]
The protection of the town and its people's wealth was a clear priority.<ref name="wh72">{{cite web|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002278/227867e.pdf|title=World Heritage No. 72|publisher=World Heritage Committee|access-date=3 March 2015}}</ref> A large wall was built in the late-18th-century town and its bay in a 2.5&nbsp;km arc from shore to shore. The wall was defended by 22 semi-circular towers placed at regular intervals. It was faced by a parapet with a walkway, most likely to provide leverage for gunners.<ref name="wh72"/> Access to the town was limited to a few defended gateways from the landside, or via its harbour. There was no sea wall, but a stout fort defended the main landing area on the sandy beach.<ref>Walmsley, A.; Barnes, H. & Macumber, P. 2010: Al-Zubarah and its hinterland, north Qatar: excavations and survey, spring 2009. P. 59-60 in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 40, p.55-68</ref>
Despite its defensive fortifications, Zubarah was attacked on several occasions.<ref name="gillespie1"/> In addition to two major attacks carried out at the behest of [[Nasr Al-Madhkur]] in 1778, and 1782, the residents of the town were engaged in a war with the [[Banu Kaab]] of [[Khuzestan Province|Khuzestan]] during the late eighteenth century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nyrop|first=Richard F.|title=Area Handbook for the Persian Gulf States|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BPX0h_wbFtEC|publisher=Wildside Press|year=2008|isbn=978-1434462107|page=26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023575946.0x00009f|title='Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol I. Historical. Part IA & IB. J G Lorimer. 1915' [1003] (1158/1782)|publisher=Qatar Digital Library|access-date=6 May 2015}}</ref>
=== Industry ===
A large number of [[Date palm|date]]-presses (madbassat) are found in houses throughout the town. They are small rooms with ridged plastered floors sloping to one corner where a jar would have been placed. Dates were packed in sacks and placed on the floor with weights on top to squeeze out the date juice - a sweet sticky syrup (dibs). The jar would collect and preserve the syrup for later consumption or use in cooking.<ref name="Richter, T. P. 6-7"/> In 2014, a site was excavated which revealed the largest yet-discovered date-pressing site in the country and region. There were 27 date presses found overall, including 11 found in one lone complex.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thepeninsulaqatar.com/news/latest-news/290910/qatar-museums-announces-a-new-discovery-at-al-zubarah|title=Qatar Museums announces a new discovery at Al Zubarah|publisher=The Peninsula Qatar|date=9 July 2014|access-date=1 March 2015}}</ref>
== Attractions ==
=== Zubarah Fort ===
{{Main article|Zubarah Fort}}
[[File:zubara1.jpg|thumb|left|230px|An inside view of Zubarah Fort.]]
Zubarah is well known for the [[fortification|fortress]] of 1938, which was officially named after the town. The [[Zubarah Fort]] follows a traditional concept with a square ground plan with sloping walls and corner towers. Three of the towers are round while the fourth, the southeast tower, is rectangular; each is topped with curved-pointed [[Battlement|crenellation]]s, with the fourth as the most [[Machicolation|machicolated]] tower. The fort's design recalls earlier features common in Arab and Gulf fortification architecture but varies by being constructed on concrete foundations. It marks the transition from solely stone-built structures to cement-based ones, albeit in a traditional design.<ref name="qma.org.qa">{{cite web|url=http://www.qma.org.qa/index.php/en/cultural-a-heritage/forts-a-towers/introduction-forts/93-al-zubarah-fort |title=Al Zubarah Fort ''(archived version)'' |publisher=qma.org.qa |access-date=14 February 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926213757/http://www.qma.org.qa/index.php/en/cultural-a-heritage/forts-a-towers/introduction-forts/93-al-zubarah-fort |archive-date=September 26, 2013 }}</ref>
[[File:Qatar, Zubarah (5), fort.JPG|thumb|2015, outside view of renovations on Zubarah Fort.]]
Originally, the fort was built as a base for the Qatari military and police to protect Qatar's northwest coast as part of a series of forts along Qatar's coastline. It was restored in 1987 with the removal of some much later auxiliary buildings erected to house the Qatari forces. After opening, the fort quickly became a major heritage attraction and, for a while, a local museum. Due to the unsuitable conditions in the fort for displaying and storing finds, the objects were relocated to Doha in 2010. Starting in 2011, the [[Qatar Museums Authority]] conducted a project of monitoring and restoration to ensure the upkeep of the fort. Between 2010 and 2013, parts of the fort were inaccessible to visitors.<ref name="qma.org.qa"/>
=== Qal'at Murair ===
{{Main article|Qal'at Murair}}
The Murair Fort (''[[Qal'at Murair]]'' in Arabic), situated {{convert|1.65|km|abbr=on}} east of the town of Zubarah, was built shortly after the town's settlement. The fort served to espouse Zubarah and especially entrenched the town's primary freshwater source: groundwater reached by shallow wells. Within the fortification walls were a [[mosque]], domestic buildings, and at least one large well. Around the fort, several enclosures attest to the presence of fields, plantations, or holding pens for animals, suggesting that this was also an agricultural settlement.<ref>Richter, T., Wordsworth, P. D. & Walmsley, A. G. 2011: Pearlfishers, townsfolk, Bedouin and Shaykhs: economic and social relations in Islamic Al-Zubarah. P. 13 in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies. 41, p. 1-16</ref>
A brief instance after the foundation of Zubarah, two screening walls were constructed from the outer town wall toward Qal'at Murair. These two walls, oriented east-west, include round towers placed at regular intervals, which strengthened their defensive capabilities.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The screening walls likely served to secure the transportation of water from the wells inside Qal'at Murair to Zubarah. In the harsh, hot summers of the Persian Gulf, water was a most valuable and beneficial commodity. The walls also channeled general traffic to and fro the town over open salt flats.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
== Tourism ==
[[File:ZubarahFortRenovations.jpg|thumb|left|2012, renovations in Zubarah Fort.]]
Zubarah was added to UNESCO's World Heritage tentative list in 2008.<ref name="behere"/> Since 2009, the site has been the subject of joint research by the QIAH and [[Copenhagen University]], and development as a protected heritage site.<ref name="behere">{{cite web|url=http://behereonline.com/sectors-88/homing-in-on-heritage|title=Homing in on Heritage|publisher=behereonline.com|access-date=14 January 2015}}</ref> For protection, most of the site is enclosed within a fenced area. Additionally, visitors must pass a guard to enter the heritage town.
Prior to its addition to the [[World Heritage List]], there was no visitor centre in the town. Other visitor facilities were sparse. In a parking lot next to the Zubarah fort, an information stand provided an overview and introduction to the site, fort, and town. There were restrooms located near the fort, but there were no refreshments available in the vicinity.<ref>Al-Kholaifi M.J. 1987: Athar. Al-Zubarah and Marwab. Doha: Ministry of Information, Department of Tourism and Antiquities. (in arabic)</ref>
On June 22, [[List of World Heritage Sites by year of inscription#2013 (37th session)|2013]], [[UNESCO]] added the site to its World Heritage List. The UNESCO report stated that the town was distinguished by its degree of preservation and its evidenced sustainment by pearl diving and commerce.<ref name=ds>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1402|title=Al Zubarah Archaeological Site|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=14 February 2015}}</ref> Following its inclusion in the list, the partially restored fort was transformed into a visitor centre and several rooms were designated for showcasing the subjects of pearling and astronomy.<ref name="rosendahl">{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/9323978|title=Al Zubarah Archaeological Site and the Qatar Islamic Archaeology and Heritage Project: Outreach and Presentation Strategies in an Open-Air Museum|publisher=academia.edu|last=Rosendahl|first=Sandra|access-date=1 March 2015}}</ref>
[[File:Qatar, Zubarah (8), museum.JPG|thumb|A museum in Zubarah Fort showcasing artifacts from the town.]]
Guided tours of the town are offered, and field trips to the site are being integrated into various schools' history curriculum. There is also a self-guided tour, where the visitor is guided by signposts.<ref name="rosendahl"/> Tourism increased rapidly after the town's renovations were completed in 2014, attracting more than 30,000 visitors in the first three months of the year. This was a 170% increase from the entire 2013 season.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qatarisbooming.com/article/record-visitor-numbers-al-zubarah|title=Record visitor numbers at Al Zubarah|publisher=qatarisbooming.com|date=29 May 2015|access-date=1 March 2015}}</ref>
== Sports==
The town currently hosts the [[Tour of Al Zubarah]], a men's one-day [[cycle racing|cycle race]] which was rated as 2.2 by the [[Union Cycliste Internationale|UCI]] and forms part of the [[UCI Asia Tour]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.procyclingstats.com/race/Tour_of_Al_Zubarah_2014|title=2nd Tour of Al Zubarah (2.2)|publisher=procyclingstats.com|access-date=1 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.procyclingstats.com/races.php?circuit=12&year=2015|title=2015 Asia Tour|publisher=procyclingstats.com|access-date=1 March 2015}}</ref> It was selected as the host of the tournament to procure more media attention to the region, thereby amplifying tourism.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gulf-times.com/sport/192/details/373150/inaugural-tour-of-zubarah-from-december-4|title=Inaugural Tour of Zubarah from December 4|newspaper=Gulf Times|date=29 November 2013|access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref> In addition, Zubarah is one of the host cities of the ladies' and men's [[Tour of Qatar]] and has been described as one of the toughest and longest stages in the course.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cyclingweekly.co.uk/news/latest-news/lucy-garners-ladies-tour-qatar-blog-stage-two-155950|title=Lucy Garner's Ladies Tour of Qatar blog: stage two|publisher=cyclingweekly.co.uk|date=4 February 2015|access-date=1 March 2015}}</ref>
A [[horse racing]] event known as Al Zubarah Cup is staged in the town.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thepeninsulaqatar.com/sports/horse-racing/333943/o-shea-shines-as-mekhbatt-tops-al-zubarah-cup-field|title=O'Shea shines as Mekhbatt tops Al Zubarah Cup field|publisher=The Peninsula Qatar|date=23 April 2015|access-date=23 April 2015}}</ref> A horse breeding farm, which is planned to be one of the largest in the region, is currently being constructed in the town. The project is funded by the [[Qatar Racing and Equestrian Club]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://issuu.com/arabianhorseworld/docs/0914-waho|title=Arabian Farm Tours|publisher=The 2014 WAHO Conference|page=5|access-date=1 May 2015}}</ref>
==Education==
The following school is located in Zubarah:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name of School !! Curriculum !! Grade !! Genders !! Official Website !! Ref
|-
| Al Zubara Boys Schools || Independent || Primary – Secondary || Male-only || N/A || <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sec.gov.qa/_layouts/mobile/view.aspx?List=5335de85-afcb-4cbe-8dbf-342173214815&View=fc8b74ae-8c20-4a4f-be85-d07710380c7b&ViewMode=Detail|title=Qatari Schools|publisher=Supreme Education Council|access-date=18 July 2015}}</ref>
|-
|}
== Developments ==
The planned [[Qatar–Bahrain Friendship Bridge]], slated to be the longest fixed link in the world, will connect the northwest coast of Qatar near Zubarah with Bahrain, specifically, south of [[Manama]]. Its location several kilometres south of Zubarah is planned so as to have negligible impact on the heritage site. It is expected to be constructed by 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thepeninsulaqatar.com/qatar/219002-qatar-bahrain-causeway-faces-delay-says-minister.html|title=Qatar-Bahrain causeway faces delay, says minister|publisher=thepeninsulaqatar.com|date=23 December 2012|access-date=14 February 2015}}</ref>
An expansion of Zubarah Road, a one-lane road leading to the archaeological site, was announced in 2014 by the Public Works Authority. It is planned to introduce three additional lanes.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gulf-times.com/qatar/178/details/381233/zubarah-road-expansion|title=Zubarah road expansion|newspaper=Gulf Times|date=15 February 2015|access-date=7 May 2015}}</ref>
== Archaeology and conservation ==
[[File:Qatar, Zubarah (10), ruined city.JPG|thumb|left|Partially reconstructed ruins in Zubarah.]]
In March 1956, the site of Zubarah was included in the first Danish expeditions of Qatar and a team of archaeologists from [[Aarhus University]] and [[Moesgård Museum]] provided preliminary reconnaissance of the area. In 1962, Moesgård Museum archaeologist Hans Jørgen Madsen returned to the ruins in Zubarah and conducted further surveys.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kapel|first=Holger|title=Atlas of the Stone-Age cultures of Qatar|publisher=Aarhue University Press|year=1967|pages=5–12}}</ref>
The [[Qatar Museums Authority]] (QMA) and its predecessor carried out two excavation projects in Zubarah, with the first during the early 1980s, and the latter in 2002–2003. The excavations in the 1980s were the more comprehensive of the two.<ref>Al-Kholaifi M.J. 1987: Athar. Al-Zubarah and Marwab. Doha: Ministry of Information, Department of Tourism and Antiquities. (in Arabic)</ref>
In 2009, the QMA jointly launched the Qatar Islamic Archaeology and Heritage Project (QIAH) with the [[University of Copenhagen]]. The QIAH is a ten-year research, conservation, and heritage initiative to investigate archaeological sites, preserve their fragile remains, and work towards the presentation of the sites to the public. The project is an initiative by the Qatar Museums Authority's chairperson H.E. [[Al-Mayassa bint Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani]] and vice-chairperson H.E. [[Hassan bin Mohamed bin Ali Al Thani]].<ref name="miri.ku.dk"/>
[[File:Excavations at the archaeological site of Zubarah in 2010.jpg|thumb|Excavations in Zubarah in 2010]]
The QIAH project carried out a complete topographic survey of the site of Zubarah, the adjacent site of Murair, and the Zubarah Fort. Archaeological excavations have been undertaken at Zubarah and Qal`at Murair, supported by landscape studies in the hinterland. Numerous sites belonging to different chronological periods have been identified and recorded, and exploratory excavations have been conducted at a number of important localities, especially [[Freiha]] and [[Fuwayrit]].<ref name="miri.ku.dk"/>
A team from the [[University of Hamburg]] recorded the architectural remains of Zubarah in great detail with a 3D scanner. To preserve the architectural remains, a restoration program has been launched using a special, saline-resistant mortar and plasters to maximise the visitor experience, while abiding by UNESCO heritage guidelines. The conservation work aims to preserve the authenticity of the site, as well as to preserve areas that can be enjoyed by visitors to the site through, among other means, interactive displays on mobile devices.<ref name="miri.ku.dk"/>
==Sovereignty disputes==
[[File:Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa (1872–1942).png|thumb|160px|Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa]]
There have been separate claims made by Qatar and Bahrain over the territory of Zubarah since the time of Ottoman rule. Following the signing of the [[Qatari–Bahraini War#Anglo-Bahraini agreement of 1868|1868 sovereignty treaty]] by the [[House of Thani|Al Thani]], the earliest recorded disagreement over ownership occurred in 1873, when the Bahraini emir claimed sovereignty over Zubarah after he received false news of a military party that was supposedly en route to sack Zubarah.<ref name="qdl1"/> In 1937, [[Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa (1872–1942)|Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa]] of Bahrain alerted the local political resident to the long-running dispute. He, in turn, referred the issue to the political resident in [[Bushehr]]. The political resident in Bushehr wrote back, stating:
{{pull quote|Personally I am of opinion that Zubara definitely belongs to Qatar but I am writing to His Majesty's Government, pending their decision you should avoid giving any opinion at all to Bahrain Government on the matter including the fact that I am referring the question.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023554959.0x000011|title='File 19/243 I (C 69) Zubarah' [3r] (16/416)|publisher=qdl.qa|access-date=14 February 2015}}</ref>}}
Hamad ibn Isa wrote again to the political resident in Bahrain in 1939 to inform him that [[Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani|Abdullah Al Thani]] was constructing a fort in Zubarah. He contended that the construction was illegal because he held sovereignty over the land.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023850384.0x0000a5|title='File 19/243 III (C 95) Zubarah' [78r] (166/462)|publisher=qdl.qa|access-date=14 February 2015}}</ref> A settlement was reached in 1944 during a meeting mediated by the Saudis, in which Qatar recognized Bahrain's customary rights, such as grazing, and visiting with no formalities necessary. However, Abdullah broke the accord when he constructed a fort in the town. The strenuous relationship between the two countries improved in 1950 after [[Ali bin Abdullah Al Thani|Ali Al Thani]] ascended to the throne.<ref name="crystal"/>
In 1953, Bahrain again reiterated its claims over Zubarah when it sent a party of students and teachers to Zubarah who proceeded to write 'Bahrain' on the walls of Zubarah Fort. Furthermore, the Bahrain Education Department published maps that alleged Bahraini sovereignty over the entire northwest coast of the peninsula. Ali responded by occupying the fort in 1954 and later added police in 1956.<ref name="crystal">{{cite book|last=Crystal|first=Jill|title=Oil and Politics in the Gulf: Rulers and Merchants in Kuwait and Qatar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D8di8GN_hKsC|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1995|pages=165–166|isbn=978-0521466356}}</ref>
Following the independence of Qatar in 1971 from the British Empire, Bahrain continued to dispute Qatari [[sovereignty]] over Zubarah until the case was settled in Qatar's favour with a ruling by the [[International Court of Justice]] in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=2&case=87&p3=0|title=Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain)|publisher=International Court of Justice|access-date=2 February 2015}}</ref>
The issue of sovereignty came up again following the onset of the [[Qatar diplomatic crisis]]. In June 2018, the [[Derasat|Bahrain Center for Strategic, International and Energy Studies (DERASAT)]] held a conference on the history of the Al Khalifa family's control of Qatar until 1868, during which they urged the Bahraini government to renew its claims over Zubarah.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.khaleejtimes.com/region/conference-urges-bahrain-to-stake-claim-for-lands-under-qatar-control|title=Conference urges Bahrain to stake a claim for lands under Qatar control|newspaper=Khaleej Times|author=Mustafa Al Zarooni|date=1 July 2018|access-date=15 January 2019}}</ref> In August, the King of Bahrain [[Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa]] publicly met with the Naim tribe, natives of Zubarah who in the past professed allegiance to the King of Bahrain, and said in a statement that "we will not forget the illegal aggression against Zubarah", referring to Sheikh Abdullah Al Thani's excursion against the Naim tribe in 1937.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tasnimnews.com/en/news/2018/08/19/1806854/bahraini-king-s-comments-on-qatar-provokes-controversy|title=Bahraini King's Comments on Qatar Provokes Controversy|publisher=Tasnim News|date=19 August 2018|access-date=15 January 2019}}</ref>
== In popular culture ==
An independent and modernized Zubarah (spelled Zubara) is the setting for much of [[Larry Correia|Larry Correia's]] and [[Micheal Kupari|Micheal Kupari's]] military thriller ''Dead Six.''<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dead Six|last=Larry.|first=Correia|others=Kupari, Mike.|isbn=9781451637588|location=New York|oclc=701811253|date=2011-09-27|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781451637588}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Bani Utbah]]
* [[History of Qatar]]
* [[History of Bahrain]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==Further reading==
*{{cite book
| last      = Abu Hakima
| first     = A.M.
| year      = 1965
| title     = History of Eastern Arabia 1750–1800. The Rise and Development of Bahrain and Kuwait
| publisher = Khayats
}}
*{{cite journal
| last    = Abu-Lughod
| first   = J.L.
| title   = The Islamic City — Historic Myth, Islamic Essence, and Contemporary Relevance
| journal = International Journal of Middle East Studies
| volume  = 19/2
| issue = 2
| pages   = 155–176
| year    = 1987 | doi = 10.1017/S0020743800031822
| s2cid = 56326994
}}
*{{cite book
| last1         = Al Khalifa
| first1        = A.b.K.
| last2         = Hussain
| first2        = A.A.
| year          = 1993
| editor1-last  = Al Khalifa
| editor1-first = A.b.K.
| editor2-last  = Rice
| editor2-first = M.
| title         = Bahrain through the ages: the history
| chapter       = The Utoob in the eighteenth century
| pages         = 301–334
| publisher     = Kegan Paul
| location      = London
}}
*{{cite book
| last      = Bibby
| first     = G.
| year      = 1969
| title     = Looking for Dilmun
| url      = https://archive.org/details/lookingfordilmun00bibb
| url-access = registration
| publisher = Knopf.
| location  = New York
}}
*{{cite book
| editor-last  = Bille
| editor-first = M.
| year         = 2009
| title        = End of the Season Report 2009, Vol. 1. Archaeological Excavations & Survey at az-Zubarah, Qatar
| publisher    = University of Copenhagen/Qatar Museums Authority
}}
*{{cite journal
| last    = Bowen
| first   = R. Le B.
| title   = The Pearl Fisheries of the Persian Gulf
| journal = The Middle East Journal
| volume  = 5/2
| pages   = 161–180
| year    = 1951 }}
*{{cite journal
| last1   = Breeze
| first1  = P.
| last2   = Cuttler
| first2  = R.
| last3   = Collins
| first3  = P.
| title   = Archaeological landscape characterization in Qatar through satellite and aerial photographic analysis, 2009 to 2010
| journal = Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies
| volume  = 41
| year    = 2011 }}
*{{cite book
| last         = Brucks
| first        = G.B.
| year         = 1865
| editor-last  = Thomas
| editor-first = R.H.
| title        = Arabian Gulf Intelligence. Selections from the Records of the Bombay Government. Concerning Arabia, Kuwait, Muscat and Oman, Qatar, United Arab Emirates and the Islands of the Gulf
| chapter      = Navigation of the Gulf of Persia
| pages        = 531–580
| publisher    = The Oleander Press
| location     = Cambridge
}}
*{{cite journal
| last    = Carter
| first   = R.
| title   = The History and Prehistory of Pearling in the Persian Gulf
| journal = Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
| publisher = Brill
| volume  = 48
| issue   = 2
| pages   = 139–209
| year    = 2005
| jstor   = 25165089 | doi = 10.1163/1568520054127149
}}
*{{cite journal
| last      = Fuccaro
| first     = N.
| title     = Histories of City and State in the Persian Gulf: Manama since 1800
| journal   = Cambridge Middle East Studies
| volume    = 30
| year      = 2009
| location  = Cambridge/New York
| publisher = Cambridge University Press}}
*{{cite journal
| last    = Grey
| first   = Anthony
| title   = Late Trade Wares on Arabian Shores: 18thc to 20th century imported fine ware ceramics from excavated sites on the southern Persian Gulf coast
| journal = Post-medieval Archaeology
| volume  = 45/2
| pages   = 350–373
| year    = 2011
| url     = https://independent.academia.edu/AnthonyGrey/Papers/932979/Late_Trade_Wares_on_Arabian_Shores_18thc_to_20th_century_imported_fine_ware_ceramics_from_excavated_sites_on_the_southern_Persian_Arabian_Gulf_coast }}
*{{cite book
| last      = Lorimer
| first     = J.G.
| year      = 1915
| title     = Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman and Central Arabia. i. Historical
| publisher = Office of the Superintendent Government Printing
| location  = Calcutta}}
*{{cite journal
| last1   = Moulden
| first1  = H.
| last2   = Cuttler
| first2  = R.
| last3   = Kelleher
| first3  = S.
| title   = Conserving and Contextualising National Cultural Heritage: The 3D digitisation of the Fort at Al Zubarah and Petroglyphs at Jebel Jassasiya, Qatar
| journal = Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies
| volume  = 41
| year    = 2011 }}
*{{cite journal
| last      = Onley
| first     = James
| title     = The Politics of Protection in the Gulf: The Arab Rulers and the British Resident in the Nineteenth Century
| journal   = New Arabian Studies
| volume    = 6
| pages     = 30–92
| year      = 2004
| publisher = Exeter University Press}}
*{{cite book
| last      = Rahman
| first     = H.
| year      = 2005
| title     = The Emergence of Qatar: the turbulent years 1627–1916
| publisher = Thames & Hudson
| location  = London}}
*{{cite journal
| last1   = Rees
| first1  = G.
| last2   = Walmsley
| first2  = A. G.
| last3   = Richter
| first3  = T.
| title   = Investigations in the Zubarah Hinterland at Murayr and Furayhah, North-West Qatar
| journal = Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies
| volume  = 41
| pages   = 309–316
| year    = 2011 }}
*{{cite book
| editor-last  = Richter
| editor-first = T.
| year         = 2010
| title        = Qatar Islamic Archaeology and Heritage Project. End of Season Report. Stage 2, Season 1, 2009-2010
| publisher    = University of Copenhagen/Qatar Museums Authority
}}
*{{cite journal
| last1   = Richter
| first1  = T.
| last2   = Wordsworth
| first2  = P. D.
| last3   = Walmsley
| first3  = A. G.
| title   = Pearlfishers, townsfolk, Bedouin and Shaykhs: economic and social relations in Islamic Al-Zubarah
| journal = Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies
| volume  = 41
| pages   = 1–16
| year    = 2011 }}
*{{cite journal
| last1   = Walmsley
| first1  = A.
| last2   = Barnes
| first2  = H.
| last3   = Macumber
| first3  = P.
| title   = Al-Zubarah and its hinterland, north Qatar: excavations and survey, spring 2009
| journal = Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies
| volume  = 40
| pages   = 55–68
| year    = 2010 }}
*{{cite book
| last         = Warden
| first        = F.
| year         = 1865
| editor-last  = Thomas
| editor-first = R.H.
| title        = Arabian Gulf Intelligence. Selections from the Records of the Bombay Government. Concerning Arabia, Kuwait, Muscat and Oman, Qatar, United Arab Emirates and the Islands of the Gulf
| chapter      = Uttoobee Arabs (Bahrein)
| pages        = 362–425
| publisher    = The Oleander Press
| location     = Cambridge
}}
== External links ==
{{Commons category|Zubarah}}
{{wikivoyage|Zubarah}}
* [http://www.alzubarah.qa/en Official website of Al Zubarah Archaeological Site]
* [https://artsandculture.google.com/story/zgXB5_nRvM_Luw Al Zubarah Archaeological Site] UNESCO Collection on Google Arts and Culture
* [http://leqatar.free.fr/Qatar/Volarthus/Zubarah.html Photos of Zubarah Fort]
* [http://www.qatarvisitor.com/index.php?cID=439&pID=1732 Excavations at Zubara]
* [http://miri.ku.dk/projekts/qiahp/ University of Copenhagen, Qatar Islamic Archaeology and Heritage Project]
* [https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5316/ UNESCO's tentative list]
* [http://www.unesco.org/archives/multimedia/index.php?s=films_details&id_page=33&id_film=2125 Al-Zubarah Pearl of the Past. A documentary from 2011]
* [http://qatarpano.com/zubara/ 360 degrees panoramic virtual tour of the Al Zubarah fort]
* [http://qma.org.qa/en/cultural-a-heritage/forts-a-towers/introduction-forts/93-al-zubarah-fort Culture and Heritage under Qatar Museums Authority: Al Zubarah fort]
*{{Citation
| last        = James
| first       = Bonnie
| title       = Zubarah's heritage list hopes get a lift
| newspaper   = Gulf Times
| date        = March 24, 2012
| url         = http://www.gulf-times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=494770&version=1&template_id=57&parent_id=56
| access-date  = March 30, 2012}}
*{{Citation
| title       = Students gain insight into Al Zubarah's historic role
| newspaper   = Gulf Times
| date        = February 25, 2012
| url         = http://www.gulf-times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=488882&version=1&template_id=36&parent_id=16
| access-date  = March 30, 2012}}
*{{Citation
| last        = James
| first       = Bonnie
| title       = New tools to unearth Zubarah secrets
| newspaper   = Gulf Times
| date        = January 21, 2012
| url         = http://www.gulf-times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=482058&version=1&template_id=57&parent_id=56
| access-date  = March 30, 2012}}
*{{Citation
| title       = Hi-tech survey at Al Zubarah site
| newspaper   = Gulf Times
| date        = January 21, 2012
| url         = http://www.gulf-times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=482022&version=1&template_id=36&parent_id=16
| access-date  = March 30, 2012}}
*{{Citation
| title       = Excavation at historic site uncovers date presses used to produce syrup
| newspaper   = Gulf Times
| date        = February 25, 2011
| url         = http://www.gulf-times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=418433&version=1&template_id=36&parent_id=16
| access-date  = March 30, 2012}}
*{{Citation
| last        = James
| first       = Bonnie
| title       = Remains of palatial compound
| newspaper   = Gulf Times
| date        = February 11, 2011
| url         = http://www.gulf-times.com/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=415484&version=1&template_id=36&parent_id=16
| access-date  = March 30, 2012}}
*{{Citation
| last        = Mogensen
| first       = Anna
| title       = Danish-led Excavation in Qatar
| newspaper   = FOCUS Denmark
| publisher   = Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark
| date        = March 12, 2010
| url         = http://www.netpublikationer.dk/um/10138/html/chapter02.htm
| access-date  = March 30, 2012}}
*{{Cite journal
| last        = Walmsley
| first       = Alan
| title       = The legacy of Zubarah
| volume      = 1
| journal     = Qultura Magazine
| pages       = 58–65
| publisher   = Vega Media and Katara
| date        = December 8, 2011
| url         = http://issuu.com/merciafuoco/docs/qultura_1_dic_2011
| access-date  = March 30, 2012}}
{{Al Shamal Municipality}}
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Populated places in Al Shamal]]
[[Category:Populated coastal places in Qatar]]
[[Category:Disputed territories in the Persian Gulf]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Qatar]]
[[Category:Arabic architecture]]