Bengali traditional games
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Bengali traditional games are traditional games that are played in rural parts of the historical region of Bengal (present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal). These games are typically played outside with limited resources. Many games have similarities to other traditional South Asian games. Some traditional Bengali games are thousands of years old and reference historical ways of life. Due to urbanization, traditional Bengali games are declining in popularity.[1][2]
History
Some traditional Bengali games are thousands of years old and reference historical ways of living and historical events.[citation needed] For example, it is argued that some of the rhymes used to be associated with the gameplay of Gollachut, in which players run from the center of a circle towards a boundary area to be safe from opponents, may refer to escape attempts by slaves during the Indus Valley Civilisation or afterward.[3] During the colonial era, traditional Bengali games declined in popularity, as the Bengali middle class (Bhadralok) began to be influenced by European sporting culture.[4]
Boat racing
Nouka Baich
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With riverine Bangladesh's geography being dominated by the world's largest delta, the country has over 230 rivers in its terrain. The rivers have played an important role in the livelihoods of the native Bengali people. Common in rural areas, Nouka Baich is a very old tradition of the folk Bengali culture going back centuries. Its popularity in urban areas increased in the 18th century. The various Nawab families throughout Mughal Bengal were also known for organising races and the use of Sari gan started to become more popular.
Nouka Baich was also common during the British rule in the Sylhet region after the rainy season when much of the land goes under water. The long canoes were referred to as khel naos (meaning playing boats) and the use of cymbals to accompany the singing was common.Martial arts
Boli Khela
Boli Khela was introduced in the last 19th century by Kader Boxo. He was a landlord and resident of Satkania Upazila under Madarsha Union in Chittagong district. Reportedly, beginning in 1879, during the first month of each year, he collected dues from his renters and arranged a boli khela match. After his death, the 7th of Boishakh, the first month of the Bengali calendar year, started being called "Mokkaro Boli Khela". A 20th century merchant, Abdul Jabbar Saodagor from Chittagong, arranged a boli khela in 1907 match to cultivate a sport that would prepare the youth to fight against British rule. Broad appeal for the sport began at the end of the First World War but subsided at the end of the Second World War.
In the year 2020 and 2021, the event was not held due to Covid pandemic situation. After two years on 24 April 2022 the 113th edition and then the 114th edition of the historic Jobbarer Boli Khela, a traditional form of wrestling, took place in Chattogram on 25 April 2023.Lathi khela
Rich farmers and other eminent people hired lathial for security and as a symbol of their power. Duels were used as a way to protect or take land and other possessions. A proverb in some South Asian languages is "whoever wields the lathi keeps the buffalo". Zamindars (feudal lords) sent groups of lathial to forcefully collect taxes from villagers. Lathi training was at one time included in the Bratachari system of education.
Although lathi is practised in Indian and Bangladeshi villages, urbanization has led to its decline as a rural martial art in recent decades. Until 1989, an annual nationwide lathi khela convention was held in Kushtia, Bangladesh, where troupes from all over the country took part. Due to the drop in practitioners and spectators, the convention is now held once every three years. Even in the districts where lathi troupes once flourished, only several now remain. Today, lathi khela is most often seen during festivals and weddings. Matches are held in West Bengal for certain puja rituals, and a similar sport called chamdi is played during Eid in North Bengal.Throwing games
Chungakhela
Chungakhela is typically played in Chittagong by adults. The players throw firecrackers at each other, attempting to hit their opponents. As a result, players may be burnt while partaking in the game.[5]
Gaigodani
Gaigodani is played with one player throwing a stick onto a muddy surface, trying to lodge the stick upright in the mud. A second player throws their stick, attempting to make the first stick either fall to the ground or end up parallel to the first stick. If the second player fails, the first player attempts the same, with the two alternating until one of them succeeds. The winner retains both sticks and then challenges a third player in the same fashion, and so on. Once one player has all the sticks, the player throws the sticks and hides their own stick. Then, each opponent attempts to retrieve a thrown stick and touch the hidden stick. The last opponent to do so loses.[6]
Pittu/Satchada/Satchara (Bengali: পিট্টু)[7] (Seven Stones)
The game is one of the most ancient games of the Indian subcontinent whose history dates back to the Bhagavata Purana, which mentions Krishna playing the game with his friends. This traditional sport has been played for the last 5 millennia. It is believed to have been originated in the southern parts of the Indian subcontinent.
Lagori (seven stones) will be included as a demonstration sport in the 2023 National Games of India.Bat-and-ball games
Gulli danda
Gulli danda (Bengali: গুল্লি ডাণ্ডা),[8] also known as danguli khela,[9] is usually played by boys.[citation needed] It is played with a small piece of wood called a gulli, and another stick called a danda. The danda is used to hit the gulli, which the opposing player tries to catch.
Hopscotch games
Ekka-dokka
Ekka-dokka (Bengali: এক্কা-দোক্কা),[8] known locally as guti (গুটি),[7][unreliable source?] is typically played by women.[citation needed] It is played with either a smaller, broken piece of an earthen pot or flat clay that is rectangular or circular. On the ground, a large box long is drawn and is then divided into six smaller boxes. Every box has a common name, such as ek-er ghor for the first box, dui-er ghor for the second box, and so on up to five boxes, with the last box being known as samundra. The players roll their guti (playing piece) into the first box. After that, the player rotates the guti with their toes into the second box, the second box into the third box, and so on, until it reaches the fifth box. Then, the player rotates the guti back towards their starting position. After completing one round, they roll the guti again, starting at the second box. While rolling the guti, a player sings a melody called ekka-dokka. A player may be eliminated if they choose the incorrect box, leave their playing area, place both of their feet inside the box, or if their guti falls on the line.
Roleplaying games
Raja-chor-mantri-sipahi
Raja-chor-mantri-sipahi (Bengali: রাজা-মন্ত্রী-চোর-সিপাহি)[8] is usually played among boys and girls.[citation needed] Four players are needed to play this game, who each take up a role. The four roles are Raja (King), Mantri (Minister), chor (thief) and sipahi (soldier). Each character has different points. Raja has 1000 points, the mantri has 500 points, sipahi has 100 points, and Chor has 0 points. These roles are randomly chosen by writing the roles on a small sheet of paper and tossing them in the middle of the four players. The player who gets Raja gives the order to Mantri to find out who is the chor from the remaining two players. Mantri receives points if he correctly finds the chor. Otherwise, Mantri's points will be zero, and the points of Mantri go to the chor. Rounds repeat this way, and points are recorded in a note. To end, the points are tallied and the player with the most points is declared the winner.
Pull-and-push games
Ayanga-ayanga
One player, who is given the role as the "tiger", leaps forward and tries to grab any of the other players, who are given the role of "goats", to drag them out of the circle they are stationed within. The last player remaining within the circle becomes the tiger in the next round.[10][9]
Chikka
In Chikka, also known as "tug and trip", there are two teams who assemble across either side of a dividing line. Each team player attempts to trip the opposing team player by pulling and pushing each other, their opponent falls onto the other side of the line.[9]
Elating Belating
In Elating Belating, there are two teams who each form a line by holding hands and facing each other. Each team steps forward while saying a rhyme. Once the rhyme is completed by one team, the players try to grab one of the players on the opposing team. If the grabbing team can successfully take an opposing player away, the grabbing team are the victors.[5]
Morog Lorai
In Morog Lorai, players must hop on one foot and attempt to knock down other players to eliminate them. The last remaining player wins the game.[11]
Openti Bioscope
In Openti Bioscope, two players form a "gate" by holding hands. The two players sing a rhyme, while the other players attempt to go through the gate before it is lowered, which occurs at the completion of the rhyme.[6]
Variations of Tag
Bouchi
Baucchi (also spelled Bouchi or Boucchi) is a game where one player, the "bride", stays in an area some distance away from the "bride-snatching" team's area. In variations of the game, the bride may instead be considered an "old lady".[citation needed] The bride-snatchers can leave their area to tag players on the "bride-protecting" team and eliminate them, but the bride-snatchers must hold their breath while doing so; otherwise the bride-snatchers themselves can be tagged out by the protectors. Once the bride-snatchers have run out of breath and tagged out as many opponents as possible, the bride must run to the bride-snatchers' area without being tagged by the remaining protectors.[9]
Borof Paani
Borof Paani is the Bengali version of freeze tag.[10]
Chhi-chhattar
In Chhi-chhattar, one player (the "kite") is surrounded by all other players (the "cocks"). The cocks form a human chain by holding hands. The kite can attempt to run out of the circle of players, and the first player to chase after and tag the kite becomes the kite in the next round.[10][12]
Dariabandha
Atya patya (Hindi: आट्यापाट्या) is a traditional South Asian tag sport played by two sides of nine players. It is more popular in rural areas of India. It is more commonly played in Maharashtra, a western Indian state. Atya patya is described as a "game of feints". The playing area comprises nine trenches, coming out of either side of a central trench; a point is awarded to the attacking team's players for each trench they cross without being tagged out by the defensive players within the trenches. The game ends after 4 innings (scoring turns) of 7 minutes each, with each team having two innings to score. It has been described as a game of "militant chase". The sport is played in a relatively small area and requires no equipment, similar to other games indigenous to India such as kabaddi, seven stones, kho kho, gillidanda and langdi. The national governed body of the sport is the "Atya Patya Federation of India". The federation was formed in 1982. The ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports, government of India, lists the federation amongst its list of recognised federation for the year 2013. The federation is headquartered in Nagpur. Its president is H. B. Hallad.
The first south Asian Atya patya Championship was held in Bhutan in June, 2013. It was won by India.Golap Tagar
Also known as Phul Tokka, players are separated by an equal distance from a dividing boundary line. Players are alternately blindfolded and then asked to guess which player on the other team has touched them on the forehead. When players guess correctly, they are allowed to take a jump forward. When a player guesses incorrectly, the opponent that touched them on the forehead gets to take a leap forward. The first team to get a player over the dividing line wins.[13][14]
Gollachut
In Gollachut or Gollachhut, a stick is placed in the center of a 20-metre circle, and players on the king's team (generally eight to ten players) form a chain by holding hands, while one of these players holding onto the stick. The players then, as a chain, start to circle the stick. Some of them then break off from the chain, with the goal of running out of the circle without being tagged by opponents.[15] The game is believed to be reminiscent of laborers or slaves attempting to escape doing agricultural work (i.e. grinding crops in a farmhouse).[3]
Ha-du-du/Kabaddi
Kabaddi (/kəˈbædi/,[16] /ˈkʌbədi/)[17] is a contact team sport played between two teams of seven players, originating in ancient India.[18] The objective of the game is for a single player on offense, referred to as a "raider", to run into the opposing team's half of the court, touch out as many of their players as possible, and return to their own half of the court, all without being tackled by the defenders in 30 seconds. Points are scored for each player tagged by the raider, while the opposing team earns a point for stopping the raider. Players are taken out of the game if they are touched or tackled, but return to the game after each point scored by their team from a tag or tackle. It is popular in the Indian subcontinent and other surrounding Asian countries. Although accounts of kabaddi appear in the history of India, the game was popularised as a competitive sport in the 20th century. It is the national sport of Bangladesh.[19] It is the second most popular and viewed sport in India after cricket.[18][20] It is the state game of the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh.[21] There are two major disciplines: "Punjabi kabaddi", also called "circle style", comprises traditional forms of the sport that are played on a circular field outdoors, and the "standard style", on a rectangular court indoors, is played in major professional leagues and international competitions such as the Asian Games.
This game is known by numerous names in different parts of the Indian subcontinent, such as: kabaddi or chedugudu in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana; kabaddi in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala; kabaddi, komonti or ha-du-du in West Bengal and Bangladesh; baibalaa in Maldives, kauddi or kabaddi in the Punjab region; hu-tu-tu in Western India, ha-do-do in Eastern India; chadakudu in South India; kapardi in Nepal; kabadi or sadugudu in Tamil Nadu; and chakgudu in Sri Lanka.[22]The raider is required to execute each raid on a single breath; in order to prove that they are not inhaling, they are required to repeatedly chant the word "kabaddi", in a process referred to as a cant.[lower-alpha 1] The term kabaddi is from a Tamil word composed of "Kai" and "Pidi", meaning "hand catch." Ronojoy Sen speculates in his book Nation At Play that kabaddi originated during the Vedic period (between 1500 BC and 500 BC). There are accounts of Gautama Buddha and Lord Krishna having played an ancient form of the sport. According to the sport's origins, Kabaddi is a sport developed centered on Jallikattu. A player going to the opposition is treated like a bull. It is like taming a bull without touching it, as it is mentioned in Sangam Literature that the game called Sadugudu was practised since ages. There are also accounts of kabaddi having been played in Iran 2,000 years ago.
Modern kabaddi is a synthesis of the game played in various forms under different names in the Indian subcontinent. India has been first credited with having helped to popularise kabaddi as a competitive sport, with the first organized competitions occurring in the 1920s, their introduction to the programme of the Indian Olympic Games in 1938, the establishment of the All-India Kabaddi Federation in 1950, and it being played as a demonstration sport at the inaugural 1951 Asian Games in New Delhi. These developments helped to formalize the sport, which had traditionally been played on muddy surfaces in villages, for legitimate international competition. The first framework of rules for the sport was prepared in Maharashtra in the 1920s, with English sports serving as a model for this formalisation. One of the earliest modern tournaments of the sport, the All India Kabaddi Tournament in 1923, was played according to these amended rules. After being demonstrated again at the 1982 Asian Games in Delhi, kabaddi was added to the Asian Games programme beginning in 1990.
The advent of the Pro Kabaddi League (PKL) in 2014 revolutionised the standard style of the sport, with various rule changes being made; for example, whereas previously raids had no time limit other than the breathing capacity of the raider,[lower-alpha 2] the PKL rules introduced the concept of a standard 30-second time limit for every raid.Holdug
In Holdug, also known as "tag me in water", one player dives underwater, and the first opponent to tag the player takes their place in the next round of gameplay.[23]
Kanamachi
Kho kho
Kho-kho is one of the more popular traditional Bengali games.[24]
Kho kho is a traditional South Asian sport that dates to ancient India.[25][26] It is the second-most popular traditional tag game in the Indian subcontinent after kabaddi.[27] Kho kho is played on a rectangular court with a central lane connecting two poles which are at either end of the court. During the game, nine players from the chasing team (attacking team) are on the field, with eight of them sitting (crouched) in the central lane, while three runners from the defending team run around the court and try to avoid being touched.[26] Each sitting player on the chasing team faces the opposite half of the field that their adjacent teammates are facing. At any time, one player from the chasing team (the 'active chaser'/'attacker') may run around the court to attempt to tag (touch) members of the defending team, with one point scored per tag, and each tagged defender required to leave the field; however, the active chaser cannot cross the central lane to access the other half of the field, and cannot change direction once they start running toward either pole. The chasing team can get around these restrictions if the active chaser either switches roles with a sitting teammate (by touching them on the back while saying "Kho") who is facing the other half of the court and therefore has access to it, or runs to the area behind either pole and then switches direction/half. Each team has two turns to score and two turns to defend, with each turn lasting nine minutes. The team that scores the most points by the end of the game wins.[28]
The sport is widely played across South Asia, and also has a presence in other regions with a significant South Asian diaspora, such as South Africa and England. It is played most often by school children, and is also a competitive sport.[29] The first franchise league for the sport, Ultimate Kho Kho, was unveiled in India in August 2022.[30]Kho kho has been played since at least the fourth century BC. Certain aspects of kho kho's gameplay may have been mentioned in the Mahabharata. In pre-modern times, it is believed that a version of kho kho known as Rathera was played on chariots (ratha meaning "chariot" in Sanskrit). The game was also known in ancient times as "Kho Dhwani Krida", translating as "a game where the sound 'kho' is made". The modern form of the game was standardised in 1914, with its rules and formalised structure being given by Pune's Deccan Gymkhana club. The first rule book of Kho-kho was written by Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Kho-kho was demonstrated at the 1936 Berlin Olympics alongside other traditional Indian games.
It is now a medal sport in the South Asian Games, having first been played in the 2016 edition. The sport has also been spread overseas to the United Kingdom and South Africa by the South Asian diaspora. Within South Asia, it has been accepted into major sports events such as Khelo India and the National Games of India, with its growth supported by its simplicity and affordability. In the future, Indian officials have targeted adding kho kho to the Asian Games and 2036 Olympics.Kumir danga
In Kumir danga (Bengali: কুমির ডাঁঙ্গা), all but one player stands in a designated area. The players try to leave and stay outside of that area without being tagged by the player outside the area.[31]
Langdi
In Langdi or Langdi tang, the tagger must hop on one foot, while their opponents must run within the confines of a small field.[32]
Langdi[lower-alpha 3] is a traditional South Asian field sport which combines elements of tag and hopscotch. It was originally played during the Pandiyan Dynasty and called "Nondiyaattam" at that time. The teams alternate chasing (attacking) and defending roles in each of the 4 innings of the game, with the chasing team's players restricted to hopping around on one foot, and attempting to score points by tagging as many defenders as possible within the 9 minutes of each inning. It is described by Marathis as a sport with a Marathi ethos. Langdi is considered to be useful in training for sports like kho kho, volleyball and gymnastics. The National Langdi Federation received national recognition in 2010. Langdi in Maharashtra is a popular childhood pastime, it is described as the foundation of all sports. Suresh Gandhi, Secretary of Langdi Federation of India acknowledges playing langdi isn't financially rewarding. Stake holders have to arrange for funds out of their own resources. Mumbai University will be the first Indian university to introduce langdi at the college level, for female students thus revitalising the traditional sport. 5 lakh female students study in the university in 700 colleges affiliated to it. C. N. Vidyamandir, a school in Ahmedabad, encourages participation in traditional sports such as langdi as these cost less money to play and are mentally and physically refreshing for children addicted to the electronic media and games. According to Mahesh Vichare writing in Maharashtra Times, English medium schools, both secular and those run by Christian institutions, in Mumbai, tend to neglect traditional sports like langdi. Chauhan, national president of Krida Bharati, has stressed that the organisation would endeavour to revitalise traditional sports like langdi in order to create healthy youngsters. Krida bharati is an organisation that promotes sport in India. According to Arun Deshmukh, recognition from the Indian Olympic Association is in the pipeline. This recognition results in facilities like concessional railway travel being made available, thus ensuring in growth of the sport.
Expatriate Indians have associated in the effort to popularise langdi in other countries, such as Thailand. Video films of the sport being played have been prepared in order raise interest internationally.Lathie chhora
In Lathie chhora, players climb up a tree with one of them throwing a stick away from the tree. One player fetches the stick and then touches the tree. Meanwhile, all of the other players climb down the tree while trying to avoid being tagged by the stick-fetcher.[7]
Nuntaa
Tilo Express
Tilo Express is similar to hide-and-seek, except the seeker must shout out the name of each person they find, followed by the word "express", to eliminate them. The uneliminated players are able to defeat the seeker by tagging them and shouting "tilo".[31]
Board games
Ludo
Snakes and ladders
Snakes and ladders is a board game in Bangladesh. It is usually played on the Ludo board's opposite side, as Ludo and Snakes and ladders are made on the opposite side of the same board in Bangladesh.[citation needed]
Snakes and ladders originated as part of a family of Indian dice board games that included gyan chauper and pachisi (known in English as Ludo and Parcheesi). It made its way to England and was sold as "Snakes and Ladders",[33] then the basic concept was introduced in the United States as Chutes and Ladders.[34]
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Carrom
Carrom is a board game in Bangladesh. It is played by mostly teenagers. Many tea stalls have Carrom to attract customers. The Bangladeshi variant of Carrom is slightly different from the professional variant.
The game of carrom originated in India. One carrom board with its surface made of glass is still available in one of the palaces in Patiala, India. State-level competitions were being held in the different states of India during the early part of the 20th century. Serious carrom tournaments may have begun in Sri Lanka in 1935; by 1958, both India and Sri Lanka had formed official federations of carrom clubs, sponsoring tournaments and awarding prizes. The International Carrom Federation (ICF) was formed in the year 1988 in Chennai, India. The formal rules for the Indian version of the game were published in 1988. In the same year the ICF officially codified the rules. The UKCF was formed in 1991 in London. The main work of this organisation is to promote the game of Carrom throughout the UK and ensure the participation of UK players in all major international championships.The UKCF have hosted 3 Euro cups in England and have had fantastic success in the tournament with UK players. UKCF organised national championships and league tournaments throughout the UK on annual basis. The United States Carrom Association reports on competitions in the US and Canada and has a player ranking list as of the last tournament. A group of Carrom enthusiasts grouped together in 2004 and established the Pakistani Carrom Federation or PCF. The PCF have worked to build clubs across Pakistan to promote and teach the game. The German Carrom Federation was founded in 1986 with the objective of supporting and maintaining the game of Carrom. The federation oversees Germany Carrom Clubs and teams throughout Germany. The Italian Carrom Federation was founded in 1995 by a group of Carrom enthusiasts and is responsible for the spread of the game throughout Italy. The federation is supported by a large number of volunteers who regularly run events throughout Italy to teach and educate about the game. The Japan Carrom Federation was established in 1997. In 2001 they moved into their new headquarters in Tokyo from Hikone. Originally set up to allow players to compete in overseas tournament but held their first national championship in 2004 and now hold tournaments, demonstrations and training camps across Japan.
The board and pieces can be bought in Europe, North America or Australia and are usually imported from India. The most expensive boards are made to a high standard with high quality wood and decorations though cheaper boards are available. Some of the largest exporters of carrom boards are in India, e.g. Precise, Surco, Syndicate Sports and Paul Traders.Others
Other popular rural games include:[8][35]
- Guli (Bengali: গুলি)
- Luko-churi (Bengali: লুকো-চুরি) - equivalent to hide-and-seek.
- Lattu (Bengali: লাট্টু)
- Gutidara (Bengali: গুটিদাড়া)
- Sports Game (Bengali: ক্রীড়া খেলা)
See also
Notes
- ↑ In modern variants of kabaddi, such as the Pro Kabaddi League, raids are limited to a duration of 30 seconds.
- ↑ The only way for a raid to end in pre-PKL kabaddi without the raider escaping or being captured in the defensive team's half of the field was if the raider failed to hold his breath.
- ↑ (Hindi: लंगड़ी) Also sometimes spelled Langadi.
- ↑ In some countries (at least Denmark) a variant for six players is available, but it is uncommon. Also in Denmark, a four-player variant called Partners is available, where the players compete in pairs in a Bridge-like manner.
- ↑ Patent number 14636.
References
- ↑ Suhan, Syed Asaduzzaman. "Traditional folk game of Bengali culture on the way to extinction". The Asian Age. Bangladesh. Retrieved 2024-04-15.
- ↑ Sarkar, Mahbub (2024-04-15). "Rural games are in the book, not in the field". Views Bangladesh. Retrieved 2024-04-15.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Roy, Badal (March 2016). "A Historical Study of the Origin and Features of Some Selected Folk Games in North Bengal" (PDF). Karatoya: North Bengal University Journal of History. 9: 34–44. ISSN 2229-4880.
- ↑ Vaczi, Mariann; Bairner, Alan (2023-10-06). Indigenous, Traditional, and Folk Sports: Contesting Modernities. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-98328-9.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Folk games (Part-II)". The Independent. 27 February 2018. Archived from the original on 17 November 2022. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 হারিয়ে যাওয়া মজার খেলা https://web.archive.org/
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Traditional Sports and Games Culture Around West Bengal Pallab Ghosh noveltyjournals.com
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 "Traditional rural Bengali games". Maa Mati Manush. 11 January 2014. Archived from the original on 2016-08-10.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 "Folk Games In Bangladesh: On The Verge Of Extinction". Daily Sun. 8 November 2018. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 connect2: Bangladesh cafod.org.uk
- ↑ "Our lost indigenous sports and a defective socialization process -By Sohrab Hussain". Perspective. 2017-01-19. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
- ↑ Traditional Games, Sports & Amusements played in North Bengal and its Historical Background
- ↑ "Folk games (part-III)". The Independent. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
- ↑ Global Playground's International Play Day https://www.globalplayground.org/
- ↑ Nasim, Md Abu (2021-04-17). Stadiums in Calcutta: A New Genre of Sports Culture. Notion Press. ISBN 978-1-63806-579-1.
- ↑ Wells, John C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.
- ↑ kabaddi Cambridge Dictionary
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Sudevan, Praveen (2022-10-27). "How Pro Kabaddi made kabaddi the most-watched sport in India after cricket". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 2023-12-05.
- ↑ "Bangladesh". Olympic Council of Asia.
- ↑ "The rise and rise of kabaddi, an Indian sport". The Economist. 6 October 2022. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2023-12-05.
- ↑ siddharth (31 December 2016). "Kabaddi Introduction, Rules, Information, History & Competitions". Sportycious. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
- ↑ "Kabaddi | Kabbadi Rules | How to play Kabbadi | Kabbadi Players | YoGems". 29 June 2020. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
- ↑ "Knowing Bangladesh". The Independent. Retrieved 2022-11-17.
- ↑ THE STATUS AND FUTURE PROSPECT OF INDIAN TRADITIONAL GAME KHO-KHO IN WEST BENGAL https://www.researchgate.net Nita Bandyopadhyay
- ↑ Hard Bound Lab Manual Health and Physical Education, p. 41
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 "kho-kho | Indian sport | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-07-16.
- ↑ Peter A Hastie (2010). Student-Designed Games: Strategies for Promoting Creativity, Cooperation, and Skill Development. Human Kinetics. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-7360-8590-8.
- ↑ Nag, Utathya (24 June 2022). "Kho Kho, a kabaddi-like sport linked with Indian epic Mahabharata - know all about it". Olympics.com
- ↑ ahmed, usman (14 August 2011). "Trip down memory lane: The games we play…". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
- ↑ Scroll Staff. "Ultimate Kho Kho: Squads, format, fixtures – all you need to know about latest Indian sports league". Scroll.in. Retrieved 2022-08-18.
- ↑ 31.0 31.1 Ahmed, Shaquib Tayeem (2015-11-20). "Lost Games Of Dhaka City". The Daily Star. Retrieved 2022-11-19.
- ↑ "Maa Mati Manush :: M3 Leads - Traditional rural Bengali games". maamatimanush.tv. Retrieved 2022-11-20.
- ↑ Coopee, Todd (2 December 2019). "Chutes and Ladders from Milton Bradley (1943)". ToyTales.ca.
- ↑ Augustyn (2004), pp. 27–28
- ↑ "Traditional games of Bangladesh". unesdoc.unesco.org. Retrieved 2022-11-17.