Education sciences

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Not to be confused with Learning theory (education), Cognitive science, Educational research, or Pedagogy.
Educational research
Disciplines
Curricular domains
Methods

Education sciences,[1] also known as education studies, education theory, and traditionally called pedagogy,[2] seek to describe, understand, and prescribe education including education policy. Subfields include comparative education, educational research, instructional theory, curriculum theory and psychology, philosophy, sociology, economics, and history of education.[3] Related are learning theory or cognitive science.

History

Main article: History of education

The earliest known attempts to understand education in Europe were by classical Greek philosophers and sophists, but there is also evidence of contemporary (or even preceding) discussions among Arabic, Indian, and Chinese scholars.[citation needed]

Philosophy of education

See also: Philosophy of education

Educational thought is not necessarily concerned with the construction of theories as much as the "reflective examination of educational issues and problems from the perspective of diverse disciplines."[4] For example, a cultural theory of education considers how education occurs through the totality of culture, including prisons, households, and religious institutions as well as schools.[5][6] Other examples are the behaviorist theory of education that comes from educational psychology and the functionalist theory of education that comes from sociology of education.[7]

Normative theories of education

Normative theories of education provide the norms, goals, and standards of education.[8] In contrast, descriptive theories of education provide descriptions, explanations or predictions of the processes of education. "Normative philosophies or theories of education may make use of the results of [philosophical thought] and of factual inquiries about human beings and the psychology of learning, but in any case they propound views about what education should be, what dispositions it should cultivate, why it ought to cultivate them, how and in whom it should do so, and what forms it should take.[9] In a full-fledged philosophical normative theory of education, besides analysis of the sorts described, there will normally be propositions of the following kinds: 1. Basic normative premises about what is good or right; 2. Basic factual premises about humanity and the world; 3. Conclusions, based on these two kinds of premises, about the dispositions education should foster; 4. Further factual premises about such things as the psychology of learning and methods of teaching; and 5. Further conclusions about such things as the methods that education should use."[10] Examples of the purpose of schools include:[11] to develop reasoning about perennial questions, to master the methods of scientific inquiry, to cultivate the intellect, to create change agents, to develop spirituality, and to model a democratic society.[12] Common educational philosophies include: educational perennialism, educational progressivism, educational essentialism, critical pedagogy, Montessori education, Waldorf education, and democratic education.

Normative Curriculum theory

Main article: Curriculum theory

Normative theories of curriculum aim to "describe, or set norms, for conditions surrounding many of the concepts and constructs" that define curriculum.[13] These normative propositions differ from those above in that normative curriculum theory is not necessarily untestable.[13] A central question asked by normative curriculum theory is: given a particular educational philosophy, what is worth knowing and why? Some examples are: a deep understanding of the Great Books, direct experiences driven by student interest, a superficial understanding of a wide range knowledge (e.g. Core knowledge), social and community problems and issues, knowledge and understanding specific to cultures and their achievements (e.g. African-Centered Education).

Normative Feminist educational theory

Scholars such as Robyn Wiegman argue that, "academic feminism is perhaps the most successful institutionalizing project of its generation, with more full-time faculty positions and new doctoral degree programs emerging each year in the field it inaugurated, Women's Studies".[14] Feminist educational theory stems from four key tenets, supported by empirical data based on surveys of feminist educators.[15] The first tenet of feminist educational theory is, "Creation of participatory classroom communities".[15] Participatory classroom communities often are smaller classes built around discussion and student involvement. The second tenet is, "Validation of personal experience".[15] Classrooms in which validation of personal experience occur often are focused around students providing their own insights and experiences in group discussion, rather than relying exclusively on the insight of the educator. The third tenet is, "Encouragement of social understanding and activism".[15] This tenet is generally actualized by classrooms discussing and reading about social and societal aspects that students may not be aware of, along with breeding student self-efficacy. The fourth and final tenet of feminist education is, "Development of critical thinking skills/open-mindedness".[15] Classrooms actively engaging in this tenet encourage students to think for themselves and prompt them to move beyond their comfort zones, working outside the bounds of the traditional lecture-based classroom. Though these tenets at times overlap, they combine to provide the basis for modern feminist educational theory, and are supported by a majority of feminist educators.[15] Feminist educational theory derives from the feminist movement, particularly that of the early 1970s, which prominent feminist bell hooks describes as, "a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation, and oppression".[16] Academic feminist Robyn Weigman recalls that, "In the early seventies, feminism in the U.S. academy was less an organized entity than a set of practices: an ensemble of courses listed on bulletin boards often taught for free by faculty and community leaders".[14] While feminism traditionally existed outside of the institutionalization of schools (particularly universities), feminist education has gradually taken hold in the last few decades and has gained a foothold in institutionalized educational bodies. "Once fledgling programs have become departments, and faculty have been hired and tenured with full-time commitments".[14] There are supporters of feminist education as well, many of whom are educators or students. Professor Becky Ropers-Huilman recounts one of her positive experiences with feminist education from the student perspective, explaining that she "...felt very 'in charge' of [her] own learning experiences," and "...was not being graded–or degraded... [while completing] the majority of the assigned work for the class (and additional work that [she] thought would add to class discussion)," all while "...[regarding] the teacher's feedback on [her] participation as one perspective, rather than the perspective".[17] Ropers-Huilman experienced a working feminist classroom that successfully motivated students to go above and beyond, succeeding in generating self-efficacy and caring in the classroom. When Ropers-Huilman became a teacher herself, she embraced feminist educational theory, noting that, "[Teachers] have an obligation as the ones who are vested with an assumed power, even if that power is easily and regularly disrupted, to assess and address the effects that it is having in our classrooms".[17] Ropers-Huilman firmly believes that educators have a duty to address feminist concepts such as the use and flow of power within the classroom, and strongly believes in the potential of feminist educational theory to create positive learning experiences for students and teachers as she has personally experienced. Ropers-Huilman also celebrates the feminist classroom's inclusivity, noting that in a feminist classroom, "in which power is used to care about, for, and with others… educational participants can shape practices aimed at creating an inclusive society that discovers and utilizes the potential of its actors".[17] Ropers-Huilman believes that a feminist classroom carries the ability to greatly influence the society as a whole, promoting understanding, caring, and inclusivity. Ropers-Huilman actively engages in feminist education in her classes, focusing on concepts such as active learning and critical thinking while attempting to demonstrate and engage in caring behavior and atypical classroom settings, similar to many other feminist educators. Leading feminist scholar bell hooks argues for the incorporation of feminism into all aspects of society, including education, in her book Feminism is for Everybody. hooks notes that, "Everything [people] know about feminism has come into their lives thirdhand".[16] hooks believes that education offers a counter to the, "...wrongminded notion of feminist movement which implied it was anti-male".[16] hooks cites feminism's negative connotations as major inhibitors to the spread and adoption of feminist ideologies. However, feminist education has seen tremendous growth in adoption in the past few decades, despite the negative connotations of its parent movement.[14]

Criticism of Feminist educational theory

Opposition to feminist educational theory comes from both those who oppose feminism in general and feminists who oppose feminist educational theory in particular. Critics of feminist educational theory argue against the four basic tenets of the theory, "...[contesting] both their legitimacy and their implementation".[15] Lewis Lehrman particularly describes feminist educational ideology as, "...'therapeutic pedagogy' that substitutes an 'overriding' (and detrimental) value on participatory interaction for the expertise of the faculty" (Hoffman). Lehrman argues that the feminist educational tenets of participatory experience and validation of person experience hinder education by limiting and inhibiting the educator's ability to share his or her knowledge, learned through years of education and experience. Others challenge the legitimacy of feminist educational theory, arguing that it is not unique and is instead a sect of liberatory education. Even feminist educational scholars such as Frances Hoffmann and Jayne Stake are forced to concede that, "feminist pedagogy shared intellectual and political roots with the movements comprising the liberatory education agenda of the past 30 years".[15] These liberatory attempts at the democratization of classrooms demonstrate a growth in liberatory education philosophy that some argue feminist educational theory simply piggybacks off of. The harshest critiques of feminist educational theory often come from feminists themselves. Feminist scholar Robyn Wiegman argues against feminist education in her article "Academic Feminism against Itself", arguing that feminist educational ideology has abandoned the intersectionality of feminism in many cases, and has also focused exclusively on present content with a singular perspective. Wiegman refers to feminist scholar James Newman's arguments, centered around the idea that, "When we fail... to challenge both students and ourselves to theorize alterity as an issue of change over time as well as of geographic distance, ethnic difference, and sexual choice, we repress... not only the 'thickness' of historical difference itself, but also... our (self) implication in a narrative of progress whose hero(in)es inhabit only the present".[14] Newman (and Wiegman) believe that this presentist ideology imbued within modern academic feminism creates an environment breeding antifeminist ideologies, most importantly an abandonment of the study of difference, integral to feminist ideology. Wiegman believes that feminist educational theory does a great disservice to the feminist movement, while failing to instill the critical thinking and social awareness that feminist educational theory is intended to.

Educational anthropology

Main articles: Educational anthropology and Philosophical anthropology

Philosophical anthropology is the philosophical study of human nature. In terms of learning, examples of descriptive theories of the learner are: a mind, soul, and spirit capable of emulating the Absolute Mind (Idealism); an orderly, sensing, and rational being capable of understanding the world of things (Realism), a rational being with a soul modeled after God and who comes to know God through reason and revelation (Neo-Thomism), an evolving and active being capable of interacting with the environment (Pragmatism), a fundamentally free and individual being who is capable of being authentic through the making of and taking responsibility for choices (Existentialism).[18] Philosophical concepts for the process of education include Bildung and paideia. Educational anthropology is a sub-field of anthropology and is widely associated with the pioneering work of George Spindler. As the name would suggest, the focus of educational anthropology is obviously on education, although an anthropological approach to education tends to focus on the cultural aspects of education, including informal as well as formal education. As education involves understandings of who we are, it is not surprising that the single most recognized dictum of educational anthropology is that the field is centrally concerned with cultural transmission.[19] Cultural transmission involves the transfer of a sense of identity between generations, sometimes known as enculturation[20] and also transfer of identity between cultures, sometimes known as acculturation.[20] Accordingly, thus it is also not surprising that educational anthropology has become increasingly focused on ethnic identity and ethnic change.[21][22]

Descriptive Curriculum theory

Main article: Curriculum theory

Descriptive theories of curriculum explain how curricula "benefit or harm all publics it touches".[23][24] The term hidden curriculum describes that which is learned simply by being in a learning environment. For example, a student in a teacher-led classroom is learning submission. The hidden curriculum is not necessarily intentional.[25]

Instructional theory

Main article: Instructional theory

Instructional theories focus on the methods of instruction for teaching curricula. Theories include the methods of: autonomous learning, coyote teaching, inquiry-based instruction, lecture, maturationism, socratic method, outcome-based education, taking children seriously, transformative learning

Educational psychology

Educational psychology is an empirical science that provides descriptive theories of how people learn. Examples of theories of education in psychology are: constructivism, behaviorism, cognitivism, and motivational theory

Cognitive science

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Cognitive science.[edit]
Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and its processes.[26] It examines the nature, the tasks, and the functions of cognition (in a broad sense). Mental faculties of concern to cognitive scientists include perception, memory, attention, reasoning, language, and emotion; to understand these faculties, cognitive scientists borrow from fields such as psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, linguistics and anthropology.[27] The typical analysis of cognitive science spans many levels of organization, from learning and decision-making to logic and planning; from neural circuitry to modular brain organization. One of the fundamental concepts of cognitive science is that "thinking can best be understood in terms of representational structures in the mind and computational procedures that operate on those structures."[27]

Educational neuroscience

Educational neuroscience is an emerging field that brings together researchers in diverse disciplines to explore the interactions between biological processes and education.[28]

Sociology of education

Main article: Sociology of education

The sociology of education is the study of how public institutions and individual experiences affect education and its outcomes. It is most concerned with the public schooling systems of modern industrial societies, including the expansion of higher, further, adult, and continuing education.[29] Examples of theories of education from sociology include: functionalism, conflict theory, social efficiency, and social mobility.

Teaching method

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Teaching method.[edit]

A teaching method is a set of principles and methods used by teachers to enable student learning. These strategies are determined partly by the subject matter to be taught, partly by the relative expertise of the learners, and partly by constraints caused by the learning environment.[30] For a particular teaching method to be appropriate and efficient it has to take into account the learner, the nature of the subject matter, and the type of learning it is supposed to bring about.[31]

The approaches for teaching can be broadly classified into teacher-centered and student-centered, although in practice teachers will often adapt instruction by moving back and forth between these methodologies depending on learner prior knowledge, learner expertise, and the desired learning objectives.[32] In a teacher-centered approach to learning, teachers are the main authority figure in this model. Students are viewed as "empty vessels" whose primary role is to passively receive information (via lectures and direct instruction) with the end goal of testing and assessment. It is the primary role of teachers to pass knowledge and information on to their students. In this model, teaching and assessment are viewed as two separate entities. Student learning is measured through objectively scored tests and assessments.[33] In the Student-Centered Approach to Learning, while teachers are the authority figure in this model, teachers and students play an equally active role in the learning process. This approach is also called authoritative.[34] The teacher's primary role is to coach and facilitate student learning and overall comprehension of material. Student learning is measured through both formal and informal forms of assessment, including group projects, student portfolios, and class participation. Teaching and assessments are connected; student learning is continuously measured during teacher instruction.[33]

Learning theories

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Learning theory (education).[edit]

Learning theory describes how students receive, process, and retain knowledge during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a worldview, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.[35][36] Behaviorists look at learning as an aspect of conditioning and advocating a system of rewards and targets in education. Educators who embrace cognitive theory believe that the definition of learning as a change in behaviour is too narrow, and study the learner rather than their environment—and in particular the complexities of human memory. Those who advocate constructivism believe that a learner's ability to learn relies largely on what they already know and understand, and the acquisition of knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction. Transformative learning theory focuses on the often-necessary change required in a learner's preconceptions and worldview. Geographical learning theory focuses on the ways that contexts and environments shape the learning process.

Outside the realm of educational psychology, techniques to directly observe the functioning of the brain during the learning process, such as event-related potential and functional magnetic resonance imaging, are used in educational neuroscience. The theory of multiple intelligences, where learning is seen as the interaction between dozens of different functional areas in the brain each with their own individual strengths and weaknesses in any particular human learner, has also been proposed, but empirical research has found the theory to be unsupported by evidence.[37][38]

Educational research

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Educational research.[edit]

Educational research refers to the systematic collection and analysis of evidence and data related to the field of education. Research may involve a variety of methods[39][40][41] and various aspects of education including student learning, interaction, teaching methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics.[42]

Educational researchers generally agree that research should be rigorous and systematic.[40][42] However, there is less agreement about specific standards, criteria and research procedures.[39][43] As a result, the value and quality of educational research has been questioned. Educational researchers may draw upon a variety of disciplines including psychology, economics, sociology, anthropology, and philosophy.[39][41] Methods may be drawn from a range of disciplines.[41][43] Conclusions drawn from an individual research study may be limited by the characteristics of the participants who were studied and the conditions under which the study was conducted.[41]

Educational assessment

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Educational assessment.[edit]

Educational assessment or educational evaluation[44] is the systematic process of documenting and using empirical data on the knowledge, skill, attitudes, aptitude and beliefs to refine programs and improve student learning.[45] Assessment data can be obtained by examining student work directly to assess the achievement of learning outcomes or it is based on data from which one can make inferences about learning.[46] Assessment is often used interchangeably with test but is not limited to tests.[47] Assessment can focus on the individual learner, the learning community (class, workshop, or other organized group of learners), a course, an academic program, the institution, or the educational system as a whole (also known as granularity). The word "assessment" came into use in an educational context after the Second World War.[48] As a continuous process, assessment establishes measurable student learning outcomes, provides a sufficient amount of learning opportunities to achieve these outcomes, implements a systematic way of gathering, analyzing and interpreting evidence to determine how well student learning matches expectations, and uses the collected information to give feedback on the improvement of students' learning.[49] Assessment is an important aspect of educational process which determines the level of accomplishments of students.[50]

The final purpose of assessment practices in education depends on the theoretical framework of the practitioners and researchers, their assumptions and beliefs about the nature of human mind, the origin of knowledge, and the process of learning.

Educational evaluation

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Educational evaluation.[edit]

Educational evaluation is the evaluation process of characterizing and appraising some aspect/s of an educational process.

There are two common purposes in educational evaluation which are, at times, in conflict with one another. Educational institutions usually require evaluation data to demonstrate effectiveness to funders and other stakeholders, and to provide a measure of performance for marketing purposes. Educational evaluation is also a professional activity that individual educators need to undertake if they intend to continuously review and enhance the learning they are endeavoring to facilitate.

Educational aims and objectives

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Educational aims and objectives.[edit]

Although the noun forms of the three words aim, objective and goal are often used synonymously,[51] professionals in organised education define the educational aims and objectives more narrowly and consider them to be distinct from each other: aims are concerned with purpose whereas objectives are concerned with achievement. Usually an educational objective relates to gaining an ability, a skill, some knowledge, a new attitude etc. rather than having merely completed a given task. Since the achievement of objectives usually takes place during the course and the aims look forward into the student's career and life beyond the course one can expect the aims of a course to be relatively more long term than the objectives of that same course.[52][53]

Sometimes an aim sets a goal for the teacher to achieve in relation to the learners, sometimes course aims explicitly list long-term goals for the learner and at other times there is a joint goal for the teacher and learner to achieve together. While the aim may be phrased as a goal for the teacher within the scope of the course it can also imply goals for the learner beyond the duration of the course. In a statement of an aim the third person singular form of the verb with the subject course, programme or module is often used as an impersonal way of referring to the teaching staff and their goals. Similarly the learner is often referred to in the third person singular even when they are the intended reader.

Politics in education

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Politics in education.[edit]

As an academic discipline the study of politics in education has two main roots: The first root is based on theories from political science while the second root is footed in organizational theory.[54] Political science attempts to explain how societies and social organizations use power to establish regulations and allocate resources. Organizational theory uses scientific theories of management to develop deeper understandings regarding the function of organizations. Researchers have drawn a distinction between two types of politics in schools. The term micro-politics refers to the use of formal and informal power by individuals and groups to achieve their goals in organizations. Cooperative and conflictive processes are integral components of micro-politics. Macro-politics refers to how power is used and decision making is conducted at district, state, and federal levels. Macro-politics is generally considered to exist outside the school, but researchers have noted that micro- and macro-politics may exist at any level of school systems depending on circumstance.[55]

There exist significant difference between "Politics of Education" and "Politics in Education". More debates on the prevailing differences are solicited from academia of the world to define politics educationally. An example of politics in education is in Freidus and Ewings' article about educational policy.  They suggest that an example of politics in education is race in Neoliberal school policies.[56]

Education economics

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Education economics.[edit]
Education economics or the economics of education is the study of economic issues relating to education, including the demand for education, the financing and provision of education, and the comparative efficiency of various educational programs and policies. From early works on the relationship between schooling and labor market outcomes for individuals, the field of the economics of education has grown rapidly to cover virtually all areas with linkages to education.

Comparative education

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Comparative education.[edit]
Comparative education is a discipline in the social sciences which entails the scrutiny and evaluation of different educational systems, such as those in various countries. Professionals in this area of endeavor are absorbed in advancing evocative terminologies and guidelines for education worldwide, enhancing educational structures and producing a context to which the success and effectivity of education programs and initiatives can be assessed.[57]

Educational theorists

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Very rarely, except by non-native speakers, educational sciences. Examples: the Journal of Applied Technical and Educational Sciences; international conferences: World Conference on Educational Sciences; International Conference on Educational Sciences, Technology Integration and Mobile Learning; University of Wisconsin Educational Sciences Building, Indiana State University Department of Applied Clinical and Educational Sciences
  2. ↑
    • Bartlett, Steve (2007). Introduction to education studies (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-1-4129-2193-0.
    • Pulsford, Mark; Morris, Rebecca; Purves, Ross (31 May 2023). Understanding Education Studies: Critical Issues and New Directions. Taylor & Francis. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-000-87163-0.
    • "National Board for Education Sciences, Institute of Education Sciences (IES)".
    • What Is Education Science?
  3. ↑
  4. ↑ "Journal of Thought". Retrieved 19 November 2010.
  5. ↑ Philip H. Phenix (January 1963). "Educational Theory and Inspiration". Educational Theory. 13 (1): 1–64. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.1963.tb00101.x.
  6. ↑ Gearing, Frederick (1975). A Cultural Theory of Education. Council on Anthropology and Education Quarterly. Vol. 6, no. 2. American Anthropological Association. pp. 1–9. JSTOR 3195516.
  7. ↑ Webb, DL, A Metha, and KF Jordan (2010). Foundations of American Education, 6th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merill, pp. 77–80, 192–193.
  8. ↑ "Philosophy of Education and Wittgenstein's Concept of Language-Games". theradicalacademy.org. Retrieved 2017-11-29.
  9. ↑ www.coursehero.com https://www.coursehero.com/file/p10uil12/Normative-philosophies-or-theories-of-education-may-make-use-of-the-results-of/. Retrieved 2024-02-29. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  10. ↑ Frankena, William K.; Raybeck, Nathan; Burbules, Nicholas (2002), "Philosophy of Education", in Guthrie, James W. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Education, 2nd edition, New York, NY: Macmillan Reference, ISBN 0-02-865594-X
  11. ↑ Webb, DL, A Metha, and KF Jordan (2010). Foundations of American Education, 6th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merill, pp. 55–91
  12. ↑ Barry, W. "Is Modern American Public Education Promoting a Sane Society". International Journal of Science, 2nd Ed.: 69–81. ISSN 2225-7063.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Beauchamp, George A. (Winter 1982). "Curriculum Theory: Meaning, Development, and Use". Theory into Practice. 21 (1): 23–27. doi:10.1080/00405848209542976.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 Wiegman, Robyn (2002). "Feminism against Itself". NWSA Journal. 14 (2). The Johns Hopkins University Press: 18–37. doi:10.2979/NWS.2002.14.2.18 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISSN 1040-0656. JSTOR 4316890. S2CID 144151382.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 Hoffmann, Frances L; Stake, Jayne E (1998). "Feminist Pedagogy in Theory and Practice: An Empirical Investigation". NWSA Journal. 10 (1): 79–97. doi:10.2979/NWS.1998.10.1.79 (inactive 1 November 2024). JSTOR 4316555.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 hooks, bell (2000). Feminism is for Everybody. Cambridge, MA: South End Press. ISBN 978-0-7453-1733-5.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Ropers-Huilman, Becky (1998). "Scholarship on the Other Side: Power and Caring in Feminist Education". NWSA Journal. 11 (1): 118–135. doi:10.2979/NWS.1999.11.1.118 (inactive 1 November 2024). JSTOR 4316634.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  18. ↑ Webb, DL, A Metha, and KF Jordan (2010). Foundations of American Education, 6th Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merill, pp. 55-62
  19. ↑ Comitas, Lambros; Dolgin, Janet L. (1978). "On Anthropology and Education: Retrospect and Prospect". Anthropology & Education Quarterly. 9 (3): 165. doi:10.1525/aeq.1978.9.3.04x0502h.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Page, James S. (1988). "Education and Acculturation on Malaita: An Ethnography of Intraethnic and Interethnic Affinities". The Journal of Intercultural Studies. 15/16 (15/16). Kansai Gaidai University: 74–81.
  21. ↑ Dynneson, Thomas L. (1984). "An Anthropological Approach to Learning and Teaching: Eleven Propositions". Social Education. 48 (6).
  22. ↑ Schensul, Jean J. (March 1985). "Cultural Maintenance and Cultural Transformation: Educational Anthropology in the Eighties". Anthropology & Education Quarterly. 16 (1): 63–68. doi:10.1525/aeq.1985.16.1.05x0851s.
  23. ↑ Connelly, F. Michael; Fang He, Ming; JoAnn; Phillion (2008), "Curriculum in Theory", The SAGE Handbook of Curriculum and Instruction, Sage, p. 394, ISBN 978-1-4129-0990-7
  24. ↑ Scott, Harry V. (April 1968). "A Primer of Curriculum Theory: Descriptive Theory". Educational Theory. 18 (2): 118–124. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5446.1968.tb00342.x.
  25. ↑ Martin, Jane R. (30 December 1976). Giroux, Henry; Purpel, David (eds.). "What Should We Do with a Hidden Curriculum When We Find One?". Curriculum Inquiry. 6 (2): 135–151. doi:10.1080/03626784.1976.11075525. JSTOR 1179759.
  26. ↑ "Ask the Cognitive Scientist". American Federation of Teachers. 8 August 2014. Archived from the original on 17 September 2014. Retrieved 25 December 2013. Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field of researchers from Linguistics, psychology, neuroscience, philosophy, computer science, and anthropology that seek to understand the mind.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Thagard, Paul, Cognitive Science Archived 15 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2008 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
  28. ↑ Ansari, D; Coch, D (2006). "Bridges over troubled waters: Education and cognitive neuroscience". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 10 (4). Elsevier Science: 146–151. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.02.007. PMID 16530462. S2CID 8328331.
  29. ↑ Gordon Marshall (ed) A Dictionary of Sociology (Article: Sociology of Education), Oxford University Press, 1998
  30. ↑ "Teaching Methods". www.buffalo.edu. Retrieved 2024-03-13.
  31. ↑ Westwood, P. (2008). What teachers need to know about Teaching methods. Camberwell, Vic, ACER Press
  32. ↑ Bokhove, Christian; Campbell, Ryan (2020). "Chapter 8: "ADAPTING TEACHING"". The EARLY CAREER FRAMEWORK HANDBOOK (PDF) (1st ed.). Corwin Sage. pp. 76–79. ISBN 978-1-5297-2457-8.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "Teaching Methods". Teach.com. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
  34. ↑ Burger, C., Strohmeier, D., Spröber, N., Bauman, S., Rigby, K. (2015). "How teachers respond to school bullying: An examination of self-reported intervention strategy use, moderator effects, and concurrent use of multiple strategies". Teaching and Teacher Education. 51: 191–202. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2015.07.004. ISSN 0742-051X.
  35. ↑ Illeris, Knud (2004). The three dimensions of learning. Malabar, Fla: Krieger Pub. Co. ISBN 9781575242583.
  36. ↑ Ormrod, Jeanne (2012). Human learning (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson. ISBN 9780132595186.
  37. ↑ Willingham, Daniel T.; Hughes, Elizabeth M.; Dobolyi, David G. (July 2015). "The scientific status of learning styles theories". Teaching of Psychology. 42 (3): 266–271. doi:10.1177/0098628315589505. S2CID 146126992.
  38. ↑ Pashler, Harold; McDaniel, Mark; Rohrer, Doug; Bjork, Robert A. (December 2008). "Learning styles: concepts and evidence" (PDF). Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 9 (3): 105–119. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x. PMID 26162104. S2CID 2112166. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-11-11. Retrieved 2018-04-25.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 Lodico, Marguerite G.; Spaulding, Dean T.; Voegtle, Katherine H. (2010). Methods in Educational Research: From Theory to Practice. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-58869-7.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Anderson, Garry; Arsenault, Nancy (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Research. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-97822-1.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 Yates, Lyn (2004). What Does Good Educational Research Look Like?: Situating a Field and Its Practices. Conducting Educational Research. McGraw-Hill International. ISBN 978-0-335-21199-9.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 "IAR: Glossary. (n.d.)". Instructional Assessment Resources. University of Texas at Austin. 21 September 2011. Archived from the original on 13 December 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2010.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Kincheloe, Joe (2004). Rigour and Complexity in Educational Research. McGraw-Hill International. ISBN 978-0-335-22604-7.
  44. ↑ Some educators and education theorists use the terms assessment and evaluation to refer to the different concepts of testing during a learning process to improve it (for which the equally unambiguous terms formative assessment or formative evaluation are preferable) and of testing after completion of a learning process (for which the equally unambiguous terms summative assessment or summative evaluation are preferable), but they are in fact synonyms and do not intrinsically mean different things. Most dictionaries not only say that these terms are synonyms but also use them to define each other. If the terms are used for different concepts, careful editing requires both the explanation that they are normally synonyms and the clarification that they are used to refer to different concepts in the current text.
  45. ↑ Allen, M.J. (2004). Assessing Academic Programs in Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
  46. ↑ Kuh, G.D.; Jankowski, N.; Ikenberry, S.O. (2014). Knowing What Students Know and Can Do: The Current State of Learning Outcomes Assessment in U.S. Colleges and Universities (PDF). Urbana: University of Illinois and Indiana University, National Institute for Learning Outcomes Assessment.
  47. ↑ National council on Measurement in Education http://www.ncme.org/ncme/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary1.aspx?hkey=4bb87415-44dc-4088-9ed9-e8515326a061#anchorA Archived 2017-07-22 at the Wayback Machine
  48. ↑ Nelson, Robert; Dawson, Phillip (2014). "A contribution to the history of assessment: how a conversation simulator redeems Socratic method". Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education. 39 (2): 195–204. doi:10.1080/02602938.2013.798394. S2CID 56445840.
  49. ↑ Suskie, Linda (2004). Assessing Student Learning. Bolton, MA: Anker.
  50. ↑ Oxford Brookes University. "Purposes and principles of assessment". www.brookes.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 2018-10-09. Retrieved 2018-10-09.
  51. ↑ The Compact Oxford English Dictionary defines the noun objective as "A thing aimed at or sought; a target, goal, or end". "Objective", Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.), Oxford University Press, retrieved 2021-07-09 (subscription or participating institution membership required), definition B.4.b.
  52. ↑ University of Nottingham, Medical School, Learning Objectives
  53. ↑ Teaching Sociology, Vol. 8, No. 3, Why Formalize the Aims of Instruction?
  54. ↑ Scribner, J. D.; Aleman, E.; Maxcy, B. (February 1, 2003). "Emergence of the Politics of Education Field: Making Sense of the Messy Center". Educational Administration Quarterly. 39 (1): 10–40. doi:10.1177/0013161X02239759. S2CID 143539108.
  55. ↑ Blasé, J.; Blase, J. (February 1, 2002). "The Micropolitics of Instructional Supervision: A Call for Research". Educational Administration Quarterly. 38 (1): 6–44. doi:10.1177/0013161X02381002. S2CID 144263618.
  56. ↑ Freidus, Alexandra; Ewing, Eve L. (June 2022). "Good Schools, Bad Schools: Race, School Quality, and Neoliberal Educational Policy". Educational Policy. 36 (4): 763–768. doi:10.1177/08959048221087208. ISSN 0895-9048. S2CID 247687698.
  57. ↑ Bray, M (1995). "Levels of Comparison in Education Studies". Harvard Educational Review. 65: 472–490. doi:10.17763/haer.65.3.g3228437224v4877.

References

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