African-American officeholders during and following the Reconstruction era

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More than 1,500 African American officeholders served during the Reconstruction era (1865–1877) and in the years after Reconstruction before white supremacy, disenfranchisement, and the Democratic Party fully reasserted control in Southern states.[1] Historian Canter Brown Jr. noted that in some states, such as Florida, the highest number of African Americans were elected or appointed to offices after the end of Reconstruction in 1877. The following is a partial list of notable African American officeholders from the end of the Civil War until before 1900. Dates listed are the year that a term states or the range of years served if multiple terms.

U.S. Senate

Main article: List of African-American United States senators

U.S. House of Representatives

Main articles: First generation of African-American House members, 1870–1893 and List of African-American United States representatives

Alabama

Between 1868 and 1878, more than 100 African Americans served in the Alabama Legislature.[4]

Alabama Senate

File:Alabama legislature 1872.jpg
Alabama legislators at the capitol in 1872

Alabama House of Representatives

Alabama Constitutional Convention

Other state offices

Federal offices

Local offices

Arkansas

Between 1868 and 1893, 85 men noted as "colored" or "mulatto" were elected to the Arkansas legislature.[14][15] Initially, they served under the 1868 Arkansas Constitution that granted them the right to vote and hold office. The Democrats retook control of state government and instituted the 1874 Constitution. As a result, after 1893, the next African American to serve as an Arkansas state legislator was in 1973.[16]

Arkansas Senate

Arkansas House of Representatives

Arkansas Constitutional Convention

Other state offices

  • Joseph Carter Corbin – Arkansas Superintendent of public schools 1873–1875
  • William Henry Grey – Arkansas Commissioner of Immigration and State Lands (also Arkansas House, Arkansas Senate, and Arkansas Constitutional Convention)
  • James T. White – Arkansas Commissioner of Public Works (also Arkansas House, Arkansas Senate, and Arkansas Constitutional Convention)

Federal offices

Local offices

California

Local offices

Colorado

Colorado House of Representatives

Other state offices

Florida

Florida Senate

Florida House of Representatives

Constitutional conventions

During the Florida Constitutional Convention of 1868, 18 of 46 elected delegates were Black. At the 1885 Constitutional Convention seven of the 63 delegates were Black.[27]

Florida Constitutional Convention of 1868

Florida Constitutional Convention of 1885

Other state offices

Federal offices

Local offices

Georgia

See also: Original 33

In Georgia, 69 African Americans served in the state legislature or as delegates to the state's constitutional convention between 1867 and 1872.[31]

Georgia State Senate

Georgia House of Representatives

Georgia Constitutional Convention

Federal offices

Local offices

Idaho

Federal offices

Illinois

Illinois House of Representatives

Indiana

Indiana did not have African American legislators until after the Reconstruction era.[41]

Indiana House of Representatives

Federal offices

  • James Cantrell – postmaster of Lyles September 12, 1898 – February 12, 1920[11]

Kansas

Kansas did not have African American legislators until after the Reconstruction era.[41]

Kansas House of Representatives

Other state offices

  • Edward P. McCabe – Kansas State Auditor (also county clerk, U.S. Treasury Department clerk, and country treasurer in Oklahoma)

Federal offices

Local offices

  • Edward P. McCabe – county clerk for Graham County (also Kansas State Auditor, U.S. Treasury Department clerk, and county treasurer in Oklahoma)

Kentucky

Federal offices

Louisiana

Through 1900, 24 African Americans served in the Louisiana Senate during Reconstruction; more than 100 served in the Louisiana House of Representatives.[42] In addition, six African American men held statewide offices in Louisiana, including the nation's first African American acting governors.

Louisiana Governor

Louisiana lieutenant governor

  • Caesar Antoine – 1873–1877 (also Louisiana Senate and Louisiana Constitutional Convention)
  • Oscar James Dunn – 1868–1871, (also Louisiana Constitutional Convention
  • P. B. S. Pinchback – 1872 (also U.S. Senate, acting Louisiana Governor, Louisiana Constitutional Convention, and Louisiana Senate)

Louisiana State Senate

Louisiana House of Representatives

File:Oscar Dunn.jpg
African American delegates to the Louisiana Constitutional Convention 1868

Louisiana Constitutional Convention

Other state offices

Federal offices

Local offices

Maryland

Federal offices

Local offices

Massachusetts

Massachusetts House of Representatives

Local offices

Michigan

Michigan House of Representatives

Other state offices

Minnesota

Minnesota did not have any African American legislators until after the Reconstruction era.[41]

Minnesota House of Representatives

Mississippi

The Mississippi Plan was part of an organized campaign of terror and violence used by the Democratic Party and Ku Klux Klan to disenfranchise African Americans in Mississippi, block them from holding office, end Reconstruction, and restore white supremacy in the state. Nevertheless, many African Americans served in its legislature and Mississippi was the only state that elected African American candidates to the U.S. Senate during the Reconstruction era; a total of 37 African Americans served in the Senate and 117 served in the House.[57][58]

Mississippi Lieutenant Governor

Mississippi Secretary of State

File:Members of the Legislature, State of Mississippi, 1874-'75 - photographed by E. Von Seutter, Jackson, Miss. LCCN2006687066.jpg
Photo composite of Mississippi state legislators in 1874 by E. von Seutter

Mississippi State Senate

Mississippi House of Representatives

Mississippi Constitutional Convention

Other state offices

Federal offices

Local offices

Missouri

Federal positions

Nebraska

Nebraska House of Representatives

New York

Local offices

North Carolina

North Carolina Senate

North Carolina House of Representatives

North Carolina Constitutional Convention

Federal offices

Ohio

Ohio Senate

Ohio House of Representatives

Federal offices

  • George W. Harding – postmaster of Wilberforce August 21, 1893 – July 24, 1897[11]

Local offices

Oklahoma

Federal offices

Local offices

  • Edward P. McCabe – treasurer of Logan County (also Kansas State Auditor, U.S. Treasury Department clerk in Kansas, and county clerk in Kansas)

Pennsylvania

Federal offices

Local offices

Rhode Island

Rhode Island General Assembly

South Carolina

During Reconstruction, South Carolina was the only state whose legislature was majority African American.[88] Eric Foner says 29 African Americans served in the South Carolina Senate, and 210 African Americans served in the South Carolina House of Representatives.[88] In addition, 72 African Americans participated in the 1868 South Carolina Constitutional Convention. Many others served in various state or local offices ranging from Lt. Governor to justice of the peace.[88]

South Carolina Lt. Governor

File:Radical Republicans in the South Carolina Legislature.jpg
A composite of 63 "Radical Republicans" in the South Carolina Legislature in 1868 including fifty "negroes or mulattoes"

South Carolina Senate

South Carolina House of Representatives

South Carolina Constitutional Convention

Other state offices

Federal offices

Local offices

Tennessee

Only one African American served in the Tennessee Legislature during the 1870s, but more than a dozen followed in the 1880s as Republicans retook the governorship.[95] They advocated for schools for African Americans, spoke against segregated public facilities, and advocated for voting rights protections.[96]

Tennessee House of Representatives

Other state offices

Other state and federal offices

Local offices

Texas

During the Reconstruction era, four African Americans won election to the Texas Senate and 32 to the Texas House of Representatives.[98]

Texas Senate

Texas House of Representatives

Texas Constitutional Convention

Federal offices

Local offices

Vermont

Local offices

  • Stephen Bates, Sheriff of Vergennes and the first Black chief law enforcement officer in Vermont history, 1879

Virginia

In 2012, the Virginia Senate enacted Joint Resolution No. 89, recognizing that Reconstruction in Virginia lasted from 1869 to 1890 due to Jim Crow laws; federal Reconstruction ended in 1877.[127]

Senate of Virginia

Virginia House of Delegates

Virginia Constitutional Convention

Federal offices

Local offices

Washington

Washington did not have any African American legislators during Reconstruction.[41]

Washington House of Representatives

West Virginia

West Virginia did not have any African American legislators during the Reconstruction.[41]

West Virginia House of Delegates

Wyoming

Wyoming did not have any African American legislators during Reconstruction.[41]

Wyoming Territorial House of Representatives

Washington, D.C.

Federal offices

House of Delegates

Local offices

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ He was expelled from the Constitutional Convention by moderate Republicans because of his British citizenship.
  2. ↑ Expelled from office
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 3.19 3.20 3.21 3.22 3.23 3.24 3.25 3.26 3.27 3.28 Blocked from office by racial state legislation during 1868 and 1869. After an 1869 ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court, they were reseated in January 1870.
  4. ↑ Turner may not have served as postmaster according to the U.S. Postal Service.
  5. ↑ When he became Louisiana's Lieutenant Governor, Oscar James Dunn was the first African American elected to a state-level position in the United States.
  6. ↑ Pierre Caliste Landry was the first elected African American mayor in the United States.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 All-African American towns that existed in the Indian Territory in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but no longer exist today, include Lee, Lincoln, Udora, and Wellington. For more information, refer to "All-Black Towns" in The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture.
  8. ↑ Gleaves was elected to a third term as Lt. Governor in 1876 but the Democrats forced him to withdraw.
  9. ↑ Lomax was elected to the South Carolina House in 1869 but died in January 1870 before the legislature convened.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Assassinated by the Ku-Klux Klan, according to H. A. Wallace.
  11. ↑ Wright was the first African American to occupy a judicial position in the United States.
  12. ↑ Murdered during a white mob attack on February 22, 1898.
  13. ↑ Smalls lost this position in 1913 when newly installed President Woodrow Wilson segregated federal offices.
  14. ↑ Allen was the first African American elected to a municipal judgeship in the United States.
  15. ↑ Bouey was elected county sheriff in 1876 but was not granted the position.
  16. ↑ Whipper was elected by the legislature a Circuit Court Judge but Governor Chamberlain refused to commission him.
  17. ↑ Unseated after being sworn into office.
  18. ↑ The next African American to serve in Wyoming's legislature was Liz Byrd who served in Wyoming's House and a few years later to the Wyoming Senate.
  19. ↑ William E. Matthews was the first African American to receive an appointment in the United States Postal Service.

References

  1. ↑ Foner, Eric. "Reconstruction | Definition, Summary, Timeline & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 Black Americans in Congress 1870–2007 (PDF). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 2008.
  3. ↑ Office of the Historian. "The Election of Samuel Peters of Louisiana". Historical Highlights, History, Art & Archives. Office of the Clerk, House of Representatives of the United States. Retrieved August 22, 2023.
  4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32 4.33 4.34 4.35 4.36 4.37 4.38 4.39 4.40 4.41 4.42 4.43 4.44 "x-index | Lest We Forget". Hampton University. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 Work, Monroe N.; Beverly, John William (January 1920). "Some Negro Members of Reconstruction Conventions and Legislatures and of Congress". The Journal of Negro History. 5 (1): 64–68. doi:10.2307/2713503. JSTOR 2713503. S2CID 149610698.
  6. ↑ Bailey, Richard (2010). Neither Carpetbaggers Nor Scalawags: Black Officeholders During the Reconstruction of Alabama, 1867–1878. NewSouth Books. ISBN 978-1-58838-189-7.
  7. ↑ "African-American Legislators in Reconstruction Alabama" (PDF). Alabama Department of Archives and History. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 3, 2022.
  8. ↑ "Black members of the Alabama Legislature who served during reconstruction – Alabama Historical Markers on Waymarking.com". www.waymarking.com.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 "1868 Constitution Delegates". We the People Alabama. Alabama Department of Archives & History. Retrieved January 17, 2023.
  10. ↑ Simmons, William J.; Turner, Henry McNeal (1887). Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising. G.M. Rewell & Co. ISBN 978-1-4680-9681-1.
  11. ↑ 11.000 11.001 11.002 11.003 11.004 11.005 11.006 11.007 11.008 11.009 11.010 11.011 11.012 11.013 11.014 11.015 11.016 11.017 11.018 11.019 11.020 11.021 11.022 11.023 11.024 11.025 11.026 11.027 11.028 11.029 11.030 11.031 11.032 11.033 11.034 11.035 11.036 11.037 11.038 11.039 11.040 11.041 11.042 11.043 11.044 11.045 11.046 11.047 11.048 11.049 11.050 11.051 11.052 11.053 11.054 11.055 11.056 11.057 11.058 11.059 11.060 11.061 11.062 11.063 11.064 11.065 11.066 11.067 11.068 11.069 11.070 11.071 11.072 11.073 11.074 11.075 11.076 11.077 11.078 11.079 11.080 11.081 11.082 11.083 11.084 11.085 11.086 11.087 11.088 11.089 11.090 11.091 11.092 11.093 11.094 11.095 11.096 11.097 11.098 11.099 11.100 11.101 11.102 11.103 11.104 11.105 11.106 11.107 11.108 11.109 11.110 11.111 11.112 11.113 11.114 11.115 11.116 11.117 11.118 11.119 11.120 11.121 11.122 11.123 11.124 11.125 11.126 11.127 11.128 11.129 11.130 11.131 11.132 11.133 11.134 11.135 11.136 11.137 11.138 11.139 11.140 11.141 11.142 11.143 11.144 11.145 11.146 11.147 11.148 11.149 11.150 11.151 11.152 11.153 11.154 11.155 11.156 11.157 11.158 11.159 11.160 11.161 11.162 11.163 11.164 11.165 11.166 11.167 11.168 11.169 11.170 11.171 11.172 11.173 11.174 11.175 11.176 11.177 11.178 11.179 11.180 11.181 11.182 11.183 11.184 11.185 11.186 11.187 11.188 11.189 11.190 11.191 11.192 11.193 11.194 11.195 11.196 11.197 11.198 11.199 11.200 11.201 11.202 11.203 11.204 11.205 11.206 11.207 11.208 11.209 11.210 11.211 11.212 11.213 11.214 11.215 11.216 11.217 11.218 11.219 11.220 11.221 11.222 11.223 11.224 11.225 11.226 11.227 11.228 11.229 11.230 11.231 11.232 11.233 11.234 11.235 11.236 11.237 11.238 11.239 11.240 "List of Known African American Postmasters, 1800s" (PDF). United States Post Office. October 2017. Retrieved January 19, 2023.
  12. ↑ "Leadership of Hobson City, 1902". Encyclopedia of Alabama. Retrieved January 23, 2023.
  13. ↑ Wilson, Claire M. (August 27, 2020). "Hobson City". Encyclopedia of Alabama (2nd ed.). Retrieved January 23, 2023.
  14. ↑ "Minorities in the Arkansas Senate". Arkansas Senate. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "Southeast Arkansas's African-American Legislators, 1868-1893 – The Lakeport Plantation". lakeport.astate.edu. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  16. ↑ "Black History Month 2021". Arkansas House of Representatives.
  17. ↑ 17.00 17.01 17.02 17.03 17.04 17.05 17.06 17.07 17.08 17.09 17.10 17.11 17.12 17.13 17.14 17.15 17.16 17.17 17.18 17.19 17.20 17.21 17.22 17.23 17.24 17.25 17.26 17.27 17.28 17.29 17.30 17.31 17.32 17.33 17.34 Wintory, Blake (November 28, 2022). "African-American Legislators (Nineteenth Century)". Encyclopedia of Arkansas. Retrieved January 11, 2023.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 18.4 18.5 18.6 18.7 Work, Monroe N., and Staples, Thomas S. (January 1920). "Some Negro Members of Reconstruction Conventions and Legislatures and of Congress" (PDF). The Journal of Negro History. 5 (1): 68. Retrieved January 11, 2023.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Brown Jr., Canter. Florida's Black Public Officials 1867–1924. University of Alabama Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0817309169
  20. ↑ 20.00 20.01 20.02 20.03 20.04 20.05 20.06 20.07 20.08 20.09 20.10 20.11 20.12 20.13 20.14 20.15 20.16 20.17 20.18 20.19 20.20 Work, Monroe N. (January 1920). "Some Negro Members of Reconstruction Conventions and Legislatures and of Congress" (PDF). The Journal of Negro History. 5 (1): 69–71. Retrieved January 11, 2023.
  21. ↑ 21.00 21.01 21.02 21.03 21.04 21.05 21.06 21.07 21.08 21.09 21.10 21.11 21.12 21.13 21.14 21.15 21.16 21.17 21.18 21.19 21.20 21.21 21.22 21.23 21.24 21.25 21.26 21.27 21.28 21.29 21.30 Oliva, Jose R. (February 2019). The People of Lawmaking in Florida 1822–2019 (PDF). Tallahassee: Office of the Clerk, Florida House of Representatives.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Brown Jr. Carter. Florida's Black Public Officials, 1867–1924. University of Alabama Press (1998) p. 71. ISBN 978-0817309169
  23. ↑ Brown Jr. Carter. Florida's Black Public Officials, 1867–1924. University of Alabama Press (1998) p. 75. ISBN 978-0817309169
  24. ↑ Brown Jr. Carter. Florida's Black Public Officials, 1867–1924. University of Alabama Press (1998) p. 77. ISBN 978-0817309169
  25. ↑ Brown Jr. Carter. Florida's Black Public Officials, 1867–1924. University of Alabama Press (1998) p. 78. ISBN 978-0817309169
  26. ↑ Oliva, Jose R (February 2019). The People of Lawmaking in Florida 1822–2019 (PDF). p. 184. Retrieved January 30, 2023.
  27. ↑ https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/florida-constitution-adopted/#:~:text=The%20Florida%20Constitutional%20Convention%20met,46%20elected%20delegates%20were%20Black).
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Hume, Richard L. "Membership of the Florida Constitutional Convention of 1868: A Case Study of Republican Factionalism in the Reconstruction South." The Florida Historical Quarterly 51, no. 1 (1972): 20–21.
  29. ↑ Leming, Mary Kate (September 4, 2013). "Celebrating Our History: Before Lake Worth, there was Jewell". The Coastal Star. Retrieved January 22, 2023.
  30. ↑ "Town of Eatonville Beginning History". Town of Eatonville. Archived from the original on January 23, 2023. Retrieved January 23, 2023.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Drago, Edmund L. (September 24, 2020). "Black Legislators during Reconstruction". New Georgia Encyclopedia. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
  32. ↑ 32.00 32.01 32.02 32.03 32.04 32.05 32.06 32.07 32.08 32.09 32.10 32.11 32.12 32.13 32.14 32.15 32.16 32.17 32.18 32.19 32.20 32.21 32.22 32.23 32.24 32.25 32.26 32.27 32.28 32.29 32.30 32.31 32.32 32.33 Work, Monroe N. (January 1920). "Some Negro Members of Reconstruction Conventions and Legislatures and of Congress" (PDF). The Journal of Negro History. 5 (1): 71–73. Retrieved January 11, 2023.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Duncan, Russell (December 10, 2004). "Tunis Campbell". New Georgia Encyclopedia. Retrieved January 10, 2023.
  34. ↑ Baker, Dawn (February 23, 2021). "Celebrating Black History: Remembering Georgia's 'Original 33'". WTOC. Retrieved January 12, 2023.
  35. ↑ 35.00 35.01 35.02 35.03 35.04 35.05 35.06 35.07 35.08 35.09 35.10 35.11 Journal of the proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of the people of Georgia : held in the City of Atlanta in the months of December, 1867, and January, February and March, 1868, and ordinances and resolutions adopted / published by order of the Convention. Augusta, Georgia: E. H. Pughe Book & Job Printer, 1868. Accessed January 18, 2023.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Bacote, C. A. (1955). "The Negro in Atlanta Politics". Phylon. 16 (4): 333–350. doi:10.2307/272648. ISSN 0885-6818. JSTOR 272648.
  37. ↑ "John C. Buckner, Colored Political Leader, is Dead". Chicago Tribune. December 18, 1913. p. 5. Retrieved December 9, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Williams, Erma Brooks (2008). Political Empowerment of Illinois' African-American State Lawmakers from 1877 to 2005. University Press of America. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-0-7618-4018-3.
  39. ↑ Rose, James A. (1906). "Forty-First General Assembly 1898–1900". Blue Book of the State of Illinois. Springfield, Illinois: Illinois State Journal Co., State Printers. p. 365 – via Google Books.
  40. ↑ Williams, Erma Brooks (2008). Political Empowerment of Illinois' African-American State Lawmakers from 1877 to 2005. University Press of America. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7618-4018-3.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 41.5 Foner, Eric (1996). Freedom's Lawmakers: A Directory of Black Officeholders During Reconstruction. LSU Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-2082-8. Retrieved April 22, 2022.
  42. ↑ Vincent, Charles (2011). Black Legislators in Louisiana during Reconstruction. SIU Press. ISBN 978-0809385812 – via Google Books.
  43. ↑ Mitchell, Brian K.; Edwards, Barrington S.; Weldon, Nick (2021). Monumental: Oscar Dunn and His Radical Fight in Reconstruction Louisiana. Historic New Orleans Collection. ISBN 978-0-917860-83-6.
  44. ↑ 44.000 44.001 44.002 44.003 44.004 44.005 44.006 44.007 44.008 44.009 44.010 44.011 44.012 44.013 44.014 44.015 44.016 44.017 44.018 44.019 44.020 44.021 44.022 44.023 44.024 44.025 44.026 44.027 44.028 44.029 44.030 44.031 44.032 44.033 44.034 44.035 44.036 44.037 44.038 44.039 44.040 44.041 44.042 44.043 44.044 44.045 44.046 44.047 44.048 44.049 44.050 44.051 44.052 44.053 44.054 44.055 44.056 44.057 44.058 44.059 44.060 44.061 44.062 44.063 44.064 44.065 44.066 44.067 44.068 44.069 44.070 44.071 44.072 44.073 44.074 44.075 44.076 44.077 44.078 44.079 44.080 44.081 44.082 44.083 44.084 44.085 44.086 44.087 44.088 44.089 44.090 44.091 44.092 44.093 44.094 44.095 44.096 44.097 44.098 44.099 44.100 44.101 44.102 44.103 44.104 44.105 Perkins, A. E. (October 1, 1929). "Some Negro Officers and Legislators in Louisiana". The Journal of Negro History. 14 (4): 523–528. doi:10.2307/2714198. ISSN 0022-2992. JSTOR 2714198. S2CID 149553370.
  45. ↑ 45.00 45.01 45.02 45.03 45.04 45.05 45.06 45.07 45.08 45.09 David R. Poynter Legislative Research Library, Louisiana House of Representatives (August 23, 2023). "Membership in the Louisiana House of Representatives, 1812−2024" (PDF). Retrieved September 27, 2023.
  46. ↑ "Member of the General Assembly: Senators and Representatives". New Orleans Republican. June 20, 1868. p. 1. Retrieved December 30, 2023. Open access icon
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Vincent, Charles (1976). "Louisiana's Black Legislators and Their Efforts to Pass a Blue Law During Reconstruction". Journal of Black Studies. 7 (1): 47–56. doi:10.1177/002193477600700104. JSTOR 2783730. S2CID 143949628.
  48. ↑ 48.00 48.01 48.02 48.03 48.04 48.05 48.06 48.07 48.08 48.09 48.10 48.11 48.12 48.13 48.14 48.15 48.16 48.17 48.18 48.19 48.20 48.21 48.22 48.23 48.24 48.25 48.26 Constitution adopted by the State Constitutional Convention of the state of Louisiana, March 7, 1868 ... New Orleans: New Orleans Republican. 1868. pp. 21–22 – via Hathi Trust.
  49. ↑ 49.00 49.01 49.02 49.03 49.04 49.05 49.06 49.07 49.08 49.09 49.10 49.11 49.12 49.13 49.14 49.15 49.16 49.17 49.18 49.19 49.20 49.21 49.22 49.23 49.24 49.25 "Extract from the reconstructed Constitution of the state of Louisiana, with portraits of the distinguished members of the Convention & Assembly, A.D. 1868". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. Retrieved January 18, 2023.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 Vincent, Charles (1969). "Negro Leadership and Programs in the Louisiana Constitutional Convention of 1868". Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association. 10 (4): 339–351. ISSN 0024-6816. JSTOR 4231092.
  51. ↑ Scott, Rebecca J.; Hébrard, Jean M. (2014). "Rosalie of the Poulard Nation: Freedom, Law, and Dignity in the Era of the Haitian Revolution". In Sweet, John Wood; Lindsay, Lisa A. (eds.). Biography and the Black Atlantic. College Station: Texas A&M University. pp. 116–143. ISBN 978-0-8122-0870-2. OCLC 868967268.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 "Avoyelles Parish Sheriffs". The Marksville Weekly News. September 13, 2007. p. 12. Retrieved January 21, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 53.2 "William H. Butler (b. circa 1829 – d. 1892)". Maryland State Archives. Biographical Series. May 16, 2012. Retrieved January 21, 2023.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 "African American Politicians Historical Marker". www.hmdb.org. Retrieved January 21, 2023.
  55. ↑ "Black Baltimore 1870–1920, Harry S. Cummings Political and Professional Career, Maryland State Archives". msa.maryland.gov. Retrieved January 21, 2023.
  56. ↑ Maillard, Mary (August 7, 2013). "George W. Lowther (1822–1898)". Black Past. Retrieved January 21, 2023.
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 57.2 57.3 57.4 57.5 57.6 57.7 Work, Monroe N. and Garner, J. M. and Lynch, John R. (January 1920). "Some Negro Members of Reconstruction Conventions and Legislatures and of Congress" (PDF). The Journal of Negro History. 5 (1): 73–76. Retrieved January 12, 2023.
  58. ↑ 58.00 58.01 58.02 58.03 58.04 58.05 58.06 58.07 58.08 58.09 58.10 58.11 58.12 58.13 58.14 58.15 58.16 58.17 58.18 58.19 58.20 58.21 58.22 58.23 58.24 58.25 58.26 58.27 58.28 58.29 Baldwin, DeeDee (2022). "Black Legislators in Mississippi". Against All Odds. Mississippi State University Libraries. doi:10.17605/OSF.IO/GAX6F. Retrieved January 13, 2023.
  59. ↑ Fletcher, Adam F. C. (March 18, 2019). "A History of North Omaha's African American Legislators". North Omaha History. Retrieved January 22, 2023.
  60. ↑ White, Richard (March 12, 2018). "Ned Sherman: Early African-American Mayor". New York Almanack. Retrieved January 22, 2023.
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  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 65.2 "Compiles Record Negro Legislators In State". The News and Observer. August 18, 1929. p. 24. Retrieved January 21, 2023.Open access icon via Newspapers.com [unreliable source]
  66. ↑ Hill, Steven A. (2017). "Eppes, Henry". NCpedia. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 Foner, Eric (1996). Freedom's Lawmakers: A Directory of Black Officeholders During Reconstruction. LSU Press. ISBN 978-0807120828.
  68. ↑ Justesen, Benjamin R. "Wilson Carey (1831–1905?)". North Carolina History Project. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
  69. ↑ Reid, Elizabeth Davis (1986). "Ellison, Stewart | NCpedia". www.ncpedia.org. Retrieved January 9, 2023.
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  73. ↑ "John Patterson Green, b. 1845". Documenting the American South. University of North Carolina. Retrieved January 13, 2023.
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  87. ↑ Justesen, Benjamin R. (March 15, 2013), "Van Horne, Mahlon", African American Studies Center, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.39013, ISBN 978-0-19-530173-1, retrieved October 9, 2023
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  91. ↑ Simmons, William J., and Henry McNeal Turner. Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising. GM Rewell & Company, 1887. p. 327 – 335. via Google Books
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  93. ↑ 93.00 93.01 93.02 93.03 93.04 93.05 93.06 93.07 93.08 93.09 93.10 93.11 93.12 93.13 93.14 93.15 93.16 93.17 93.18 "African American Council Members, City of Charleston, South Carolina". Charleston, South Carolina. Retrieved January 19, 2023.
  94. ↑ 1870 York County Census, p. 77
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  96. ↑ Cartwright, Joseph H. (1973). "Black Legislators in Tennessee in the 1800s: A Case Study in Black Political Leadership". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 32 (3): 265–284. JSTOR 42623393.
  97. ↑ "Biographies". This Honorable Body: African American Legislatures in 19th Century Tennessee. Tennessee State Library and Archives. 2013. Retrieved January 22, 2023.
  98. ↑ "Early African-American Senators | Giants of Texas History". Texas State Library and Archives Commission. 2021. Retrieved January 22, 2023.
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Further reading

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