Mixtec
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| File:Oaxaca ocho venado.png Mixtec king and warlord Eight Deer Jaguar Claw (right) Meeting with Four Jaguar, in a depiction from the pre-Columbian Codex Zouche-Nuttall. | |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| Approximately 830,000[1][2] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Mexico (File:Flag of Oaxaca.svg Oaxaca,File:Flag of Puebla.svg Puebla, File:Flag of Guerrero.svg Guerrero, File:Flag of Chiapas.svg Chiapas) | |
| Languages | |
| Mixtec, Spanish | |
| Religion | |
| Roman Catholicism with elements of traditional beliefs | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Zapotecs, Trique |
| People | Mixtec ñuù savi, nayívi savi, ñuù davi, nayivi davi |
|---|---|
| Language | Mixtec sa'an davi, da'an davi, tu'un savi,.. |
| Country | Mixteca Ñuu Savi, Ñuu Djau, Ñuu Davi,.. |
The Mixtecs (/ˈmiːstɛks, ˈmiːʃtɛks/),[3] or Mixtecos, are Indigenous Mesoamerican peoples of Mexico inhabiting the region known as La Mixteca of Oaxaca and Puebla as well as La Montaña Region and Costa Chica Regions of the state of Guerrero. The Mixtec culture was the main Mixtec civilization, which lasted from around 1500 BCE until being conquered by the Spanish in 1523. The Mixtec region is generally divided into three subregions based on geography: the Mixteca Alta (Upper Mixtec or Ñuu Savi Sukun), the Mixteca Baja (Lower Mixtec or Ñuu I'ni), and the Mixteca Costa (Coastal Mixtec or Ñuu Andivi). The Alta is drier with higher elevations, while the Baja is lower in elevation, hot but dry, and the Coasta is also low in elevation but much more humid and tropical. The Alta has seen the most study by archaeologists, with evidence for human settlement going back to the Archaic and Early Formative periods.[4] The first urbanized sites emerged here. Long considered to be part of the larger Mixteca region, groups living in the Baja were probably more culturally related to neighboring peoples in Eastern Guerrero than they were to the Mixtecs of the Alta.[5] They even had their own hieroglyphic writing system called ñuiñe.[6] The Costa only came under control of the Mixtecs during the military campaigns of the Mixtec cultural hero Eight Deer Jaguar Claw. Originally from Tilantongo in the Alta, Eight Deer and his armies conquered several major and minor kingdoms on their way to the coast, establishing the capital of Tututepec in the Lower Río Verde valley. Previously, the Costa had been primarily occupied by the Chatinos. In pre-Columbian times, some Mixtec kingdoms competed and allied with each other and with Zapotec kingdoms in the Central Valleys. Like the rest of the indigenous peoples of Mexico, the Mixtecs were conquered by the Spanish invaders and their indigenous allies in the 16th century. Pre-Columbian Mixtecs numbered around 1.5 million.[7] Today there are approximately 800,000 Mixtec people in Mexico, and there are also large populations in the United States. The Mixtec languages form a major branch of the Oto-Manguean language family.
Nomenclature and etymology
The term Mixtec (Mixteco in Spanish) comes from the Nahuatl word mixtecah [miʃˈtekaʔ], "cloud people". There are many names that the Mixtecs have for naming themselves: ñuù savi, nayívi savi, ñuù davi, nayivi davi.[pronunciation?] etc. All these denominations can be translated as 'the land of the rain'.[8] The historic homeland of Mixtec people is La Mixteca, called in Mixtec language Ñuu Savi,[pronunciation?] Ñuu Djau,[pronunciation?] Ñuu Davi,[pronunciation?] etc., depending on the local variant. They call their language sa'an davi,[pronunciation?] da'an davi[pronunciation?] or tu'un savi.[pronunciation?]
Overview
In pre-Columbian times, the Mixtec were one of the major civilizations of Mesoamerica. Important ancient centers of the Mixtec include the ancient capital of Tilantongo, as well as the sites of Achiutla, Cuilapan, Huajuapan, Mitla, Tlaxiaco, Tututepec, Juxtlahuaca, and Yucuñudahui. The Mixtecs also made major constructions at the ancient city of Monte Albán (which had originated as a Zapotec city before the Mixtecs gained control of it). The work of Mixtec artisans who produced work in stone, wood, and metal was well regarded throughout ancient Mesoamerica. According to West, "the Mixtec of Oaxaca...were the foremost goldsmiths of Mesoamerica," which included the "lost-wax casting of gold and its alloys."[9] At the height of the Aztec Empire, many indigenous people in Oaxaca, including the Mixtecs and Zapotecs, would suffer under at the hands of the Aztecs.[10] In the 1450s, Mixtecs would be weakened after the Aztec armies crossed the mountains into the Valley of Oaxaca with the intention of extending their hegemony.[10] Aztec forces triumphed over the Mixtecs in 1458.[10] In 1486, the Aztecs established a fort on the hill of Huaxyácac (now called El Fortín), overlooking the present city of Oaxaca, which allowed the Aztecs to enforce tribute collection from the Mixtecs and Zapotecs.[10] However, not all Mixtec towns became vassals. The Mixtecs put up some resistance to Spanish forces led by Pedro de Alvarado.[11] However, they would be subdued by the Spanish and their central Mexican allies led by Francisco de Orozco in 1521.[10] Upon Orozco's arrival to the Valley of Oaxaca on November 25, 1521, the Mixtecs would be peacefully submit to Spanish rule, though some resistance would continue in Antequera before ending by the end of 1521.[10] Mixtecs have migrated to various parts of both Mexico and the United States. In recent years a large exodus of indigenous peoples from Oaxaca, such as the Zapotec and Triqui, has seen them emerge as one of the most numerous groups of Amerindians in the United States. As of 2011, an estimated 150,000 Mixteco people were living in California, and 25,000 to 30,000 in New York City.[12] Large Mixtec communities exist in the border cities of Tijuana, Baja California, San Diego, California and Tucson, Arizona. Mixtec communities are generally described as transnational or trans-border because of their ability to maintain and reaffirm social ties between their native homelands and diasporic communities. (See: Mixtec transnational migration.)
Mixtecs in the colonial era
There is considerable documentation in the Mixtec (Ñudzahui) native language for the colonial era, which has been studied as part of the New Philology. Mixtec documentation indicates parallels between many indigenous social and political structures with those in the Nahua areas, but published research on the Mixtecs does not primarily focus on economic matters. There is considerable Mixtec documentation for land issues, but sparse for market activity, perhaps because indigenous cabildos did not regulate commerce or mediate economic disputes except for land.[13] Long-distance trade existed in the prehispanic era and continued in indigenous hands in the early colonial. In the second half of the colonial period, there were bilingual Mixtec merchants, dealing in both Spanish and indigenous goods, who operated regionally. However, in the Mixteca “by the eighteenth century, commerce was dominated by Spaniards in all but the most local venues of exchange, involving the sale of agricultural commodities and indigenous crafts or the resale of imported goods.”.[14] Despite the development of a local exchange economy, many Spaniards with economic interests in Oaxaca, including “[s]ome of the Mixteca priests, merchants, and landowners maintained permanent residence in Puebla, and labor for the obrajes (textile workshops) of the city of Puebla in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was sometimes recruited from peasant villages in the Mixteca."[15] There is evidence of community litigation against Mixtec caciques who leased land to Spaniards and the growth of individually contracted wage labor. Mixtec documentation from the late eighteenth century indicates that "most caciques were simply well-to-do investors in Spanish-style enterprises"; some married non-Indians; and in the late colonial era had little claim to hereditary authority.[16]
Geography
The Mixtec area, both historically and currently, corresponds roughly to the western half of the state of Oaxaca, with some Mixtec communities extending into the neighboring state of Puebla to the north-west and also the state of Guerrero. The Mixtec people and their homelands are often subdivided into three geographic areas: The Mixteca Alta or Highland Mixtec living in the mountains in, around, and to the west of the Valley of Oaxaca; the Mixteca Baja or Lowland Mixtec living to the north and west of these highlands, and the Mixteca de la Costa or Coastal Mixtec living in the southern plains and the coast of the Pacific Ocean. For most of Mixtec history, the Mixteca Alta was the dominant political force, with the capitals of the Mixtec nation located in the central highlands. The valley of Oaxaca itself was often a disputed border region, sometimes dominated by the Mixtec and sometimes by their neighbors to the east, the Zapotec. An ancient Coixtlahuaca Basin cave site known as the Colossal Natural Bridge is an important sacred place for the Mixtec.
Mixtec rulers
- The names of the rulers are composed by the day of the birth + nickname;
- For the sake of a simpler list, minor settlements will be joined with major ones if there are family connections between their rulers;
- Some Zapotec/Toltec kingdoms are included here, because of the many marital connections between the Mixtec and Zapotec royal lineages;
- The dynasty never breaks while a member of the family rules: the line goes through women if they ruled as queen regnants. However, if a son inherits the different kingdoms of the two reigning parents, the paternal line will be favoured.
- A family tree of some of the rulers is available in this link.
In Mixteca Costa
Acatepec, Yucu Yoo
- 1090-1097: Lady 6 Monkey War Quexquemitl (usurper, deposed),
- Sub-rulers Lord 3 Aligator and Lord 1 Movement
- 1097-1115: Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw (usurper)
Tututepec, Yucu Dzaa
- ?: Nizainzo Huidzo
- c.357: Mzatzin
- 1084-1097: Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw (usurper)
- to Tilantongo
Zacatepec, Yucu Chatuta
- 1120-?: Lord 11 Jaguar Tlaloc Fire Wall
In Mixteca Alta
Achiutla, Ñuu Ndecu
Pedernales-Achiutla dynasty
- ?: Lord 11 Flower Cloud Xicolli, with Lady 13 Wind Cloud Hair (siblings and spouses, children of Lord 4 Wind, King of Nuu Yuchi)
- ?: Lord 10 Aligator Digging Stick (father-in-law of Lord 2 Wind, King of Tlaxiaco)
- ?: Lord 8 Wind Smoked Claw (brother-in-law of Lord 12 Deer, King of Tlaxiaco)
- ?: Lord 7 Movement Blood Shedding Rain (son-in-law of 11 Wind, King of Tlaxiaco)
- ?: Lord 9 Wind Sun Fire Serpent
- ?: Lord 10 Aligator Jaguar with Claws like Flints (son of the previous)
Water Rubber Ball (Chacahua? Manialtepec?)
- ?: Lord 9 Serpent (deposed)
- ?-1115: Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw (usurper)
Andua
- c.887: Lord 12 Vulture Golden Eagle
- ?: Lord 3 Monkey Mexican Jaguar
Bulto de Xipe/Huachino
- ?: Lord 10 Movement
- ?: Lord 12 Lizard
- ?-1101: Lord 11 Wind Blood Jaguar (son of the previous)
- To Tilantongo (1101-1115) and Nuu Yuchi (1115-1164)
- ?: Lord 6 Vulture Jaguar with Knife (son of Lord 9 Rain of Tlaxiaco)[17]
Chalcatongo, Nuu Ndaya
- ?: Lord 8 Aligator Bloody Coyote
- ?: Lord 3 Dog (son-in-law of Lord 8 Alligator, in the settlement of Santa Catarina Yuxia, Yuu Usa)
- ?: Lord 13 Jaguar War Beard (descendant)
Cholula
- ?: Lord 1 Lizard Serpent-Decorated Shield, with Lady 11 Serpent Jewel Mouth (wife)
- c.1096: Lord 4 Jaguar Night Face
Hill of the Mask
| Ruler | Born | Reign | Consort | Death | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tlaxiaco dynasty[17] | ||||||
| Lord 8 Jaguar Bloody Coyote |
1113 Tlaxiaco |
? | Lady 2 Vulture Jewel Fan two children |
? | King at Tlaxiaco, a partition from Teozacoalco. His children possibly divided the realm. | |
| Lord 4 Grass Sun Face |
? Son of Lord 8 Jaguar |
? | Lady 6 Reed Venus Face one child |
? | Also king at Sosola (Acuchi). | |
| Lord 1 Movement Fire Serpent with Feathers |
? Son of Lord 4 Grass and Lady 6 Reed |
? | Lady 2 House Precious Quexquemitl one child |
? | Possibly survived his son, and was succeeded by his grandson. | |
| Lord 7 Serpent Eagle |
? Son of Lord 4 House, Prince of Hill of the Mask and Lady 3 House |
? | Lady 3 Jaguar War Quexquemitl one child Lady 4 Serpent one child |
? | Possibly survived his son (given the son's absence of nickname), and was succeeded by his grandson. | |
| Lord 7 Rain Ascending Flame |
? Son of Lord 7 Serpent and Lady 4 Serpent |
?-1338 | Lady 4 Monkey of Tilantongo, Precious Fire Serpent no children |
1338 Hill of the Mask |
||
| Hill of the Mask annexed to Teozacoalco | ||||||
Jaltepec, Añute
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Juquila, Nuu Sitoho
- ?: Lord 1 Death Sun Serpent, with Lady 11 Serpent Flower Quetzal Feathers (wife)
"Monkey"
- ?: Lord 7 Grass Bloody Jaguar
Mitlatongo, Dzandaya
- ?: Lord 1 Monkey
Flower Mountain, Yucu Ita
- ?: Lord 11 Jaguar
Broken Mountain
- ?: Lady 1 Death
Place of Flints/Pedernales, Nuu Yuchi
Quetzal
- ?: Lord 4 Stone Face with Quetzal Feathers
Río de la Serpiente
- ?: Lord 3 Eagle
San Pedro Cántaros, Nuu Naha
Teozacoalco dynasty
- ?: Lord 1 House Jaguar Sky Assassin (son of Lord 8 Rabbit, King of Teozacoalco)
- ?: Lord 6 Death Sun Rain (descendant, brother-in-law of Lord 6 Deer, King of Teozacoalco)
- ?: Lord 3 Dog (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 3 Monkey (grandson of the previous)
Place of the Drum (Soyaltepec) (?)
- ?: Lord 4 Jaguar Serpent War Snare
Suchixtlán, Chiyo Yuhu
_and_Lady_11_Monkey_(from_Suchixtl%C3%A1n)_rulers_of_Suchixtl%C3%A1n.png){kind=link}
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Teita
- ?: Lord 10 Rabbit Heart
- ?: Lord 13 Jaguar War Eagle
Teozacoalco, Chiyo Cahnu
Tilantongo, Ñuu Tnoo
| Ruler | Born | Reign | Consort | Death | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st Tilantongo dynasty | ||||||
| Lord 10 House Jaguar |
File:Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus - Lord 10 House and Lady 1 Grass (of Apoala) 1st monarchs of Tilantongo.png | ? | ? | Lady 1 Grass Puma one child |
? | First known ruler of the settlement. |
| Lord 3 Eagle Eagle of the Serpent Place |
File:Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus - Lord 3 Eagle and Lady 4 Rabbit monarchs of Tilantongo.png | ? Son of Lord 10 House and Lady 1 Grass |
? – after 942 | Lady 4 Rabbit Quexquemitl of Mitlatongo two children |
after 942 | |
| Lord 9 Wind Stone Skull |
File:Codex Bodley - Lord 9 Wind king of Tilantongo.png | 942 Tilantongo Son of Lord Lord 3 Eagle and Lady 4 Rabbit of Mitlatongo |
? – 1020 | Lady 5 Reed of Monte Albán, Rain Hill c.990 three children |
1020 aged 77-78 |
|
| Lord 10 Flower Burnt-Eyed Jaguar |
File:Codex Zouche-Nuttall - Lord 10 Flower king of Tilantongo.png | 992 Tilantongo Son of Lord 9 Wind and Lady 5 Reed of Monte Albán |
1020 – 1043 | Lady 2 Serpent of Suchixtlán, Plumed Serpent (born 1005) 1013 six children |
1043 aged 50-51 |
Many of his relatives are known to have sit exclusively in some thrones:
|
| Lord 12 Lizard Arrow Feet |
File:Codex Zouche-Nuttall - Lord 12 Lizard king of Tilantongo.png | c.1013 Son of Lord 10 Flower and Lady 2 Serpent of Suchixtlán |
1043 – c.1080? | Lady 4 Flint of Topiltepec, Face Quetzal Feathers Lady 4 Alligator of Topiltepec, Jewel Face four children in total |
c.1080? Tilantongo aged around 66-67 |
Married his nieces, daughters of his sister. |
| Lord 5 Movement Smoked Sky |
File:Codex Zouche-Nuttall - Lord 5 Movement (king) of Tilantongo.png | ? Son of Lord 12 Lizard |
1080 – ? | Lady 4 Death of Jaltepec, Jewel of the People no children Lady 2 Grass 1073 one child |
? | The succession of the son and grandson of Lord 12 Lizard is debated, as Lord 12 Lizard is the last of his dynasty explicitly depicted as king of Tilantongo before Lord 8 Deer's conquest (1097). Even his grandson, who died young in a mysterious suicide ritual, is sometimes called by experts as an heir, instead of an official ruler. There isn't also any indication of the time of death of Lord 12 Lizard, which confuses matters. What is known is that, as Lady 2 Grass (Lord 2 Rain's mother) came from Visible Stones (a place under domination of Suchixtlán), Suchixtlán became influent in Tilantongo during this period of uncertainty. It's also possible that Lord 12 Lizard's sister, Lady 4 Rabbit ''Precious Quetzal'', was his next heiress, as, before usurping the throne, Lord 8 Deer had bowed to her and her husband in their town at Sosola (Acuchi). |
| Lord 2 Rain Twenty Jaguars |
File:Codex Zouche-Nuttall - Lord 2 Rain (king) of Tilantongo.png | 1075 Tilantongo Son of Lord 5 Movement and Lady 2 Grass |
? – 18 June 1097 | Unmarried | 18 June 1097 Tilantongo aged 21–22 | |
| 2nd Tilantongo dynasty | ||||||
| Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw |
File:Codex Zouche-Nuttall - 8 Deer Jaguar Claw.png | 1063 Tilantongo Son of Lord 5 Alligator Sun Rain, Priest and Lady 11 Water Jewel Bird |
18 June 1097 – 10 November 1115 | Lady 13 Serpent of Huachino, Flowered Serpent 1103 five children Lady 6 Eagle of Chalcatongo, Jaguar Spiderweb 1105 one child Lady 10 Vulture Shining Quexquemitl 1105 two children Lady 11 Serpent of Totomihuacan, Jaguar Flower Turquoise Teeth 1105 two children Lady Lady 6 Wind of Cuyotepeji, Great Feathers of Noble Blood no children |
10 November 1115 Tilantongo aged 51–52 |
Usurper and founder of a new royal line at Tilantongo. After his death the influence in Mixtec realms passed to Pedernales, but the succession continued in Tilantongo. Lord 8 Deer was related to other settlements:
|
| Regency of Lady 6 Eagle Jaguar Spiderweb of Chalcatongo during Lord 6 House's minority | ||||||
| Lord 6 House Jaguar Falling from Heaven |
File:Codex Zouche Nuttall - Lord 6 House king of Tilantongo.png | 1109 Tilantongo Son of Lord 8 Deer and Lady 6 Eagle of Chacaltongo |
10 November 1115 – ? | Lady 9 Movement Heart of Juquila one child |
? | |
| Lord 5 Water Stone Jaguar Heaven |
File:Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus - Lord 5 Water and wife Lady 10 Reed monarchs of Tilantongo.png | ? Son of Lord 6 House and Lady Lady 9 Movement of Juquila |
? | Lady 10 Reed of Tilantongo, Quetzal Jewel eight children |
? | Married his cousin, daughter of his father's half-brother. |
| Lord 8 Reed Pheasant |
File:Codex Bodley - Lord 8 Reed king of Tilantongo.png | ? Son of Lord 5 Water and Lady 10 Reed of Tilantongo |
? | two children | ? | Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly. |
| Lady 5 Rabbit Jewel |
File:Codex Bodley - Lady 5 Rabbit queen of Tilantongo.png | ? Daughter of Lord 5 Water and Lady 10 Reed of Tilantongo |
? | |||
| Lord 2 Movement Serpent with Markings |
File:Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus - Lord 2 Movement king of Tilantongo.png | ? Son of Lord 8 Reed and Lady 5 Rabbit |
?-1206 | Lady 4 Eagle of Teita, Blood Quechquemitl Lady 12 Flint of Mountain of Flowers, Hummingbird Jewel Lady 10 Eagle of Mountain of Flowers, Serpent Spiderweb three children in total |
1206 Tilantongo |
Apparently survived his own sons and heirs, Lord 8 Grass ''Coyote Sacrificer'' and Lord 1 Lizard ''Bloody Jaguar'', and was succeeded by his grandchildren. |
| Lord 12 Reed Coyote Sun |
File:Codex Bodley - Lord 12 Reed king of Tilantongo.png | ? Son of Lord 1 Lizard, Prince of Tilantongo and Lady 6 Reed of Sunken Disk Plain |
1206-? | before or c.1206 three children |
? | Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly. |
| Lady 3 Jaguar Precious Butterfly Sun |
File:Codex Bodley - Lady 3 Jaguar queen of Tilantongo.png | ? Daughter of Lord 1 Lizard, Prince of Tilantongo and Lady 6 Reed of Sunken Disk Plain |
? | |||
| Lord 5 Rain Sun Movement |
File:Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus - Lord 5 Rain king of Tilantongo.png | ? Son of Lord 12 Reed and Lady 3 Jaguar |
? | Lady 13 Lizard of Puma, Truly Precious Butterfly one child |
? | Lord 5 Rain was related to other settlements' rulers:
|
| Lord 13 Wind Fire Serpent |
File:Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus - Lord 13 Wind king of Tilantongo.png | ? Son of Lord 5 Rain and Lady 13 Lizard of Puma |
? – after 1277 | Lady 1 Water of Teozacoalco, Venus Quechquemitl 1277 one child |
after 1277 | |
| Lord 9 Serpent Jaguar War Illuminator |
File:Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus - Lord 9 Serpent king of Tilantongo and his 2 wives.png | ? Son of Lord 13 Wind and Lady 1 Water of Teozacoalco |
? | Lady 8 Flint of Yucuita Lady 7 Flower of Yucuita four children in total |
? | |
| Lord 4 Water Bloody Eagle |
File:Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus - Lord 4 Water king of Tilantongo.png | ? Son of Lord 9 Serpent |
? – 1341 | Lady Lady 6 Water Quetzal Jewel of Flower War no children |
1341 Tilantongo |
Left no children, and his dynasty came to an end. He was succeeded by his widow. |
| Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty | ||||||
| Lady 6 Water Quetzal Jewel of Flower War |
File:Codex Zouche-Nuttall - Lady 6 Water of Teozacoalco queen of Tilantongo.png | ? Daughter of Lord 2 Dog, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 6 Reed of Tilantongo |
1341 – after 1345 | Lord 4 Water Bloody Eagle no children Prince Lord 4 Death of Tlaxiaco, War Venus 1343 four children |
after 1345 | Widow and niece of the previous. As the eldest child of the only sister of Lord 4 Water that had children, she became the inheritor of his uncle-husband's kingdom. She inherited it not as widow of her husband, but as a rightful heir of her uncle. |
| Lady 3 Rabbit Divine Flame |
File:Codex Zouche-Nuttall - Lord 9 House king of Teozacoalco and wife Lady 3 Rabbit of Tlaxiaco.png | 1345 Tilantongo Daughter of Lord Lord 4 Death, Prince of Tlaxiaco and Lady 6 Water |
after 1345-after 1372 | 1353 six children |
after 1372 | Like her mother, she married her own uncle (her mother's brother), keeping the kingdom in the family, and made possible the reunion of Tilantongo and Teozacoalco. |
| Lord 9 House Mexican Jaguar |
1323 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 2 Dog, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 6 Reed of Tilantongo |
|||||
| Lord 2 Water Fire Serpent |
File:Codex Zouche-Nuttall - Lord 2 Water king of Teozacoalco.png | 1357 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 9 House and Lady 3 Rabbit of Tlaxiaco |
after 1372 – after 1402 | Lady 2 Vulture of Teita, Flower Jewel one child Lady 3 Alligator of Zaachila, Jade Fan six children Lady 12 Flint of Teita one child Lady 4 Reed Twenty Jaguars no children |
after 1402 aged more than 44-45 |
After his death his inheritance is divided: His eldest daughter received Tilantongo; his first son got Teozacoalco, and his second son eventually inherited his mother's realm of Zaachila. |
| Lady 12 Flower Broken Mountain Butterfly |
File:Codex Zouche-Nuttall - Lady 12 Flower queen of Tilantongo.png | ? Daughter of Lord 2 Water and 2 Vulture of Teita |
after 1402 – ? | Lord Lord 12 Eagle, King of Suchixtlán, Bloody Jaguar no children |
? | First separate ruler of Tilantongo since 1341. At her death, her children inherited Tilantongo. |
| Lord 6 Deer Sacred Rain |
File:Codex Bodley - Lord 6 Deer ruler of Teozacoalco-Tilantongo.png | 1393 Son of Lord 13 Eagle, King of Suchixtlán and Lady 12 Flower, Queen of Tilantongo |
after 1416? | Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec, Seed of the Broken Mountain two children |
after 1416 aged more than 22-23 |
Nephew of the predecessor. |
| Lord 4 Flower Pheasant |
File:Codex Bodley - Lord 4 Flower king of Teozacoalco.png | 1409 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 6 Deer and Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec |
? – after 1438 | Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo, Quetzal Fan seven children |
after 1438 aged more than 28-29 |
Probably during his reign, the capital of the dual kingdom of Teozacoalco-Tilantongo may have returned to Tilantongo, but this isn't certain. |
| Lord 10 Rain Sun Rain |
File:Codex Bodley - Lord 10 Rain king of Teozacoalco.png | 1438 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 4 Flower and Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo |
? – after 1476 | Lady 5 Wind of Suchixtlán, Cocoa Flower four children |
after 1476 aged more than 37-38 |
|
| Lord 4 Deer Eagle of Tlaxiaco |
File:Codex Bodley - Lord 4 Deer king of Teozacoalco.png | 1476 Teozacoalco Son of Lord 10 Rain and Lady 5 Wind of Suchixtlán |
? – 1521 | Lady 11 Serpent Lady 12 Vulture of Jaltepec, Sun Fan (born 1484) one child in total |
1521 Teozacoalco aged 44–45 |
His kingdom fell to the Spanish, and may have died during the invasion. Probably because of this same invasion, the kingdom lost its status: his son may have succeeded only in the maternal kingdom of Jaltepec. |
| Tilantongo occupied by the Spanish | ||||||
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_of_Tilantongo.png){kind=link}
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Tlaxiaco, Ndisi Nuu
,_monarchs_of_Tlaxiaco.png){kind=link}
Totomihuacan
- ?: Lord 5 Eagle
Tula (Toltec)
- c.1096: Lord 4 Jaguar Night Face
Deep Valley
- ?: Lord 12 Dog Eagle, with Lady 5 Lizard Pulque-Zacate Vase (wife)
Yanhuitlán
- c.1320: Lord 6 Water Multicolored Feathers
- c.1500?: Lady 1 Flower Jaguar Quexquemitl, with Lord 8 Death Fire Serpent (husband; son of Lord 10 Rain, King of Teozacualco)
Zaachila, Tocuisi (Zapotec)
In Mixteca Baja
Acatlan
- ?: Lord 1 Rain
- ?: Lord 9 Reed (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 6 Deer (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 4 Dog (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 8 Flint (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 8 Alligator (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 7 Monkey (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 8 Movement (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 9 Flint (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 6 Water (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 4 Eagle (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 10 Reed (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 4 Flower (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 4 House (son of the previous)
- ?-1519/20: Unknown (son of the previous)
- To the Spanish
Chila
- ?: Lord 10 Flint
- ?: Lord 4 Deer (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 1 Eagle (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 13 Dog (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 13 Reed (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 2 Monkey (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 10 Monkey (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 10 Movement (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 3 House (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 8 Wind (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 6 Rabbit (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 13 Death (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 1 House (son of the previous)
- ?: Lord 5 Monkey (son of the previous)
- ?-1519/20: Lord 4 Dog (son of the previous)
- To the Spanish
Language, codices, and artwork
The Mixtecan languages (in their many variants) were estimated to be spoken by about 300,000 people at the end of the 20th century, although the majority of Mixtec speakers also had at least a working knowledge of the Spanish language. Some Mixtecan languages are called by names other than Mixtec, particularly Cuicatec (Cuicateco), and Triqui (or Trique). The Mixtec are well known in the anthropological world for their Codices or phonetic pictures[clarification needed] in which they wrote their history and genealogies in deerskin in the "fold-book" form. The best-known story of the Mixtec Codices is that of Lord Eight Deer, named after the day in which he was born, whose personal name is Jaguar Claw, and whose epic history is related in several codices, including the Codex Bodley and Codex Zouche-Nuttall. He successfully conquered and united most of the Mixteca region. They were also known for their exceptional mastery of jewelry and mosaic, among which gold and turquoise figure prominently. Products by Mixtec goldsmiths formed an important part of the tribute the Mixtecs paid to the Aztecs during parts of their history.[21][unreliable source?] Turquoise mosaic masks also played an important role in both political and religious functions.[22] These masks were used as gifts to form political alliances, in ceremonies during which the wearer of the mask impersonated a god, and were fixed to funerary bundles that were seen as oracles.[23]
References
- ↑ Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indios (CDI) (2000): Lenguas indígenas de México. Viewed 30 November 2006.
- ↑ Instituto de los Mexicanos en el Exterior: Lazos. Síntesis informativa Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, 24 January 2005. Viewed 30 November 2006
- ↑ "Mixtec". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ↑ Joyce, Arthur (2009). Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and Chatinos: Ancient Peoples of Southern Mexico. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0631209782.
- ↑ Gutiérrez, Gerardo (7 February 2017). "Classic and Postclassic Archaeological Features of the Mixteca-Tlapaneca-Nahua region of Guerrero: Why Didn't Anyone Tell Me the Classic was Over". After Monte Albán: Transformation and Negotiation in Oaxaca, Mexico. University Press of Colorado. pp. 367–362. ISBN 978-1-60732-597-0.
- ↑ Lind, Michael (2008). "Arqueología de la Mixteca" (PDF). Desacatos. 27: 13–32.
- ↑ archaeology.about.com › ... › Archaeology 101 › Glossary › M Terms
- ↑ "About". San Diego State University. Retrieved 17 May 2019.
- ↑ West, Robert. Early Silver Mining in New Spain, 1531–1555 (1997). Bakewell, Peter (ed.). Mines of Silver and Gold in the Americas. Aldershot: Variorum, Ashgate Publishing Limited. p. 48.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 Schmal, John P. "The Mixtecs And Zapotecs: Two Enduring Cultures of Oaxaca". Houston Institute for Culture. Retrieved 2 October 2024.
- ↑ "the Mixtec". Lumen Learning. Retrieved 2 October 2024.
- ↑ Claudia Torrens (28 May 2011). "Some NY immigrants cite lack of Spanish as a barrier". UTSanDiego.com. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
- ↑ Kevin Terraciano, ‘’The Mixtecs of Colonial Oaxaca: Ñudzahui History, Sixteen through Eighteenth Centuries’’. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2001, 248–49.
- ↑ Terraciano, ibid. p. 251
- ↑ William B. Taylor, "Town and Country in the Valley of Oaxaca", ‘’The Provinces of Early Mexico’’, Ida Altman and James Lockhart, eds. Los Angeles, UCLA Latin American Center 1976, p. 74.
- ↑ Kevin Terraciano, "The Colonial Mixtec Community," Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 80, Feb. 2000 p. 39
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 Pérez Jiménez & Jansen 2010, p.407-461
- ↑ By an alternative chronology, they were married in 1320.
- ↑ By an alternative chronology, he was born in 1339.
- ↑ The couple married in 1362, if bearing in mind an alternative chronology that poses Lord 10 Monkey's birth in 1339.
- ↑ "Ancient Scripts: Mixtec". www.ancientscripts.com. Archived from the original on 18 August 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2006.
- ↑ McEwan, Colin; et al. (2006). Turquoise Mosaics from Mexico. Durham: Duke University Press.
- ↑ Headrick, Annabeth (1999). "The Street of the Dead ... It Really Was: Mortuary bundles at Teotihuacan". Ancient Mesoamerica. 10 (1): 69–85. doi:10.1017/S0956536199101044. JSTOR 26307065. S2CID 162410036.
Further reading
- Kevin Terraciano (2004). The Mixtecs of Colonial Oaxaca: Nudzahui History, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0804751049.
- Pérez Jiménez, Gabina Aurora; Jansen, Marteen (2010). The Mixtec Pictorial Manuscripts - Time, Agency and Memory in Ancient Mexico. ISBN 978-90-04-19358-1.
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External links
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