List of German monarchs

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This article is about monarchs ruling over Germany after the 843 Treaty of Verdun. For ancient German/Germanic kings before the treaty, see List of Frankish kings.
File:HRR 10Jh.jpg
German kingdom (blue) in the Holy Roman Empire around 1000

This is a list of monarchs who ruled over East Francia, and the Kingdom of Germany (Latin: Regnum Teutonicum), from the division of the Frankish Empire in 843 and the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 until the collapse of the German Empire in 1918:

East Francia, 843–962

Carolingian dynasty

Main article: Carolingian dynasty
Seal/Portrait Name King Emperor Ended Notes R.
File:Ludwig der Deutsche.jpg Louis II the German
   (Ludwig der Deutsche)[1] 		c.10 August 843 — 28 August 876 Son of Emperor Louis the Pious and grandson of Charlemagne [2]
File:Carloman of Bavaria.png Carloman
(Karlmann) 		28 August 876 — 22 March 880 Son of Louis the German ruled in Bavaria; from 876, also King of Italy [3]
File:Louis the Younger of Saxony.PNG Louis III the Younger
(Ludwig der Jüngere) 		22 March 880 — 20 January 882 Son of Louis the German ruled in East Francia, Saxony; from 880, also Bavaria [4]
File:Sceau de Charles le gros.jpg Charles III the Fat
 (Karl der Dicke)[5] 		20 January 882 12 February 881 c.17 November 887 Son of Louis the German ruled in Alemannia, Raetia, from 882 in the entire Eastern Kingdom; from 879, also King of Italy [6]
File:Seal of Arnulph of Carinthia (896).jpg Arnulf of Carinthia
(Arnulf von Kärnten) 		c.27 November 887 25 April 896 8 December 899 Illegitimate son of Carloman [7][8]
File:Louis the Child.jpg Louis IV the Child
(Ludwig das Kind) 		8 December 899 — 24 September 911 Son of Arnulf of Carinthia [9][10]

Conradine dynasty

Main article: Conradines
Portrait Name King Emperor Ended Notes R.
File:The King Conrad I enthroned.jpg Conrad I
(Konrad I.) 		10 November 911 — 23 December 918 Elected by the nobility [11]

Ottonian dynasty

Main article: Ottonian dynasty
Seal/Portrait Name King Emperor Ended Notes R.
File:Siegel Heinrich I Posse.JPG Henry I the Fowler
(Heinrich I. der Vogler) 		14 / 24 May 919 — 2 July 936 Elected by the nobility [12]
File:Arnulf II. Pfalzgraf von Bayern.jpg Arnulf the Evil
(Arnulf der Böse) 		919 — 921 Rival king to Henry I, member of the Luitpoldings

Holy Roman Empire, 962–1806

The title "King of the Romans", used in the Holy Roman Empire, was, from the coronation of Henry II, considered equivalent to King of Germany. A king was chosen by the German electors and would then proceed to Rome to be crowned emperor by the pope.

Ottonian dynasty (continued)

Portrait Name King Emperor Ended Notes
File:Otto I (HRE).jpg Otto I the Great
(Otto I. der Große) 		2 July 936 2 February 962 7 May 973 Son of Henry I; first king crowned in Aachen Cathedral since Lothair I; crowned as Otto by the grace of God King;[13] crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 962
File:Otto II (HRE).jpg Otto II the Red
(Otto II. der Rote) 		26 May 961 25 December 967 7 December 983 Son of Otto I;
Otto by the grace of God King[13] under his father 961–973;
also crowned emperor in his father's lifetime
File:Clm 4453 fol 24r Detail Herrscherbild.jpg Otto III
(Otto III.) 		25 December 983 21 May 996 21 January 1002 Son of Otto II; Otto by the grace of God King[13]
File:Kronung Heinrich II.jpg Henry II the Saint
(Heinrich II. der Heilige) 		7 June 1002 26 April 1014 13 July 1024 Great-grandson of Henry I

Salian dynasty

Main article: Salian dynasty
Seal/Portrait Name King Emperor Ended Notes
File:Conrad II (HRE).jpg Conrad II
(Konrad II.) 		8 September 1024 26 March 1027 4 June 1039 Great-great-grandson of Otto I
File:Heinrich III. (HRR) Miniatur.jpg Henry III
(Heinrich III.) 		14 April 1028 25 December 1046 5 October 1056 Son of Conrad II;
King (of the Germans?)[13] under his father 1028–1039
File:Heinrich 4 g.jpg Henry IV
(Heinrich IV.) 		17 July 1054 21 March 1084 31 December 1105 Son of Henry III;
King of Germany under his father, 1054–1056
File:Grabplatte Rudolf von Rheinfelden Detail.JPG Rudolf of Rheinfelden
(Rudolf von Rheinfelden) 		15 March 1077 — 15 October 1080 Rival king to Henry IV; member of the Rheinfeld.
File:Town Hall Eisleben-Smaller Detail.jpg Hermann of Salm
(Hermann von Salm) 		6 August 1081 — 28 September 1088 Rival king to Henry IV; member of the Salm family.
File:Conrad II of Italy.jpg Conrad
(Konrad) 		30 May 1087 — 27 July 1101 Son of Henry IV;
King of Germany under his father, 1087–1098,
King of Italy, 1093–1098, 1095–1101 in rebellion.
File:Prüfening Klosterkirche - Romanische Fresken 3a König Heinrich V (cropped).jpg Henry V
(Heinrich V.) 		6 January 1099 13 April 1111 23 May 1125 Son of Henry IV;
King of Germany under his father, 1099–1105, forced his father to abdicate

Supplinburger dynasty

Seal/Portrait Name King Emperor Ended Notes
File:Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor.jpg Lothair III
(Lothar III.) 		13 September 1125 4 June 1133 4 December 1137 He was Lothair II of Germany, but Lothair III of Italy

Hohenstaufen dynasty

Main article: Hohenstaufen
Seal/Portrait Name King Emperor Ended Notes
File:Konrad III Miniatur 13 Jahrhundert.jpg Conrad III
(Konrad III.) 		7 March 1138 — 15 February 1152 Grandson of Henry IV (through his mother);
Previously rival king to Lothair III 1127–1135
Henry Berengar
(Heinrich (VI.)) 		30 March 1147 — August? 1150 Son of Conrad III;
King of Germany under his father 1147–1150
File:Friedrich-barbarossa-und-soehne-welfenchronik 1-1000x1540.jpg Frederick I Barbarossa
(Friedrich I. Barbarossa) 		4 March 1152 18 June 1155 10 June 1190 Nephew of Conrad III
File:Kaiser Heinrich VI. im Codex Manesse.jpg Henry VI
(Heinrich VI.) 		15 August 1169 15 April 1191 28 September 1197 Son of Frederick I;
King of Germany under his father 1169–1190
File:Frederick II and eagle.jpg Frederick II
(Friedrich II.) 		1197 — 1197 Son of Henry VI;
King of Germany under his father, 1196
File:Vad-0321 040 Philipp von Schwaben.jpg Philip of Swabia
(Philipp von Schwaben) 		8 March 1198 — 21 June 1208 Son of Frederick I; rival king to Otto IV
File:Ottta4Brunsvicky.jpg Otto IV
(Otto IV.) 		9 June 1198 21 October 1209 1215 Great grandson of Lothair III, member of the House of Welf; later opposed by Frederick II; deposed, 1215; died 19 May 1218
File:Frederick II and eagle.jpg Frederick II
(Friedrich II.) 		5 December 1212 22 November 1220 26 December 1250 Son of Henry VI;
Rival king to Otto IV until 5 July 1215
File:Henry 7 of Germany.jpg Henry
(Heinrich (VII.)) 		April 1220 — 2 July 1235 Son of Frederick II;
King of Germany under his father, 1220–1235
File:Seal of Conrad IV of Germany.jpeg Conrad IV
(Konrad IV.) 		February 1237 — 21 May 1254 Son of Frederick II;
King of Germany under his father, 1237–1250

Interregnum

Further information: Interregnum (HRE)
Image Coat of arms Name House King Emperor Ended Notes
File:Heinrich Raspe.jpg File:Arms of the house of Hesse (1200-1450).svg Henry Raspe
(Heinrich Raspe) 		Thuringia 22 May 1246 — 16 February 1247 Rival King to Frederick II and great-great-great grandson of Henry IV
File:Seal of William II of Holland, King of the H.R. Empire.jpg File:Wapen graafschap Holland.svg William of Holland
(Wilhelm von Holland) 		Holland 3 October 1247 — 28 January 1256 Rival King to

Frederick II and Conrad IV 1247–1254

File:Richard Cornwall.jpg File:Arms of Richard of Cornwall, Earl of Cornwall.svg Richard of Cornwall
(Richard von Cornwall) 		Plantagenet 13 January 1257 — 2 April 1272 Brother-in-law of Frederick II rival king to Alfonso of Castile held no real authority.
File:Alfonso X el Sabio en El libro de los juegos.jpg File:Royal Coat of Arms of the Crown of Castile (1230-1284).svg Alfonso of Castile
(Alfons von Kastilien) 		House of Ivrea 1 April 1257 — 1275 Grandson of Philip; rival king to Richard of Cornwall held no authority; later opposed by Rudolf I relinquished claims 1275, died 1284

Changing dynasties

Image Coat of arms Name House King Emperor Ended Notes
File:Rudolf von Habsburg Speyer.jpg File:Arms of Counts of Habsbourg.svg Rudolf I
(Rudolf I. von Habsburg) 		Habsburg 29 September 1273 — 15 July 1291 First of the Habsburgs
File:Adolf von nassau montanus.JPG File:Wapen Nassauw.svg Adolf of Nassau
(Adolf von Nassau) 		Nassau 5 May 1292 — 23 June 1298 According to some historians, Adolf's election was preceded by the short-lived kingship of Conrad, Duke of Teck. See his article for details.
File:Albrecht Erste Habsburg.jpg File:Arms of the Archduchy of Austria.svg Albert I
(Albrecht I. von Habsburg) 		Habsburg 24 June 1298 — 1 May 1308 Son of Rudolf I; Rival king to Adolf of Nassau, 1298
File:Henry Lux head.jpg File:Arms of the Counts of Luxembourg.svg Henry VII
(Heinrich VII.) 		Luxembourg 27 November 1308 29 June 1312 24 August 1313 Holy Roman Emperor
File:Ludovico il Bavaro.jpeg File:Bavaria Wittelsbach coa medieval.svg Louis IV (V)
the Bavarian
(Ludwig der Bayer) 		Wittelsbach 20 October 1314 17 January 1328 11 October 1347 Grandson of Rudolf I; rival king to Frederick the Fair, 1314–1322
File:Frederick III the Fair.jpg File:Arms of the Archduchy of Austria.svg Frederick the Fair
(Friedrich der Schöne) 		Habsburg 19 October 1314/
5 September 1325 		— 28 September 1322/
13 January 1330 		Son of Albert I;
rival king to Louis IV, 1314–1322;
associate king with Louis IV, 1325–1330
File:Charles IV-John Ocko votive picture-fragment.jpg File:Insigne Cechicum.svg Charles IV
(Karl IV.) 		Luxembourg 11 July 1346 5 April 1355 29 November 1378 Grandson of Henry VII; rival king to Louis IV, 1346–1347;
also King of Bohemia, King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor
File:Guenther von schwarzburg.jpg File:CoA Schwarzburg County.svg Günther von Schwarzburg
(Günther von Schwarzburg) 		Schwarzburg 30 January 1349 — 24 May 1349 Rival king to Charles IV
File:Vaclav of Bohemia.jpg File:Arms of the Counts of Luxembourg.svg Wenceslaus
(Wenzel von Böhmen) 		Luxembourg 10 June 1376 — 20 August 1400 Son of Charles IV; king of Germany under his father 1376–1378; deposed 1400;
also by inheritance King of Bohemia; died 1419
File:Rupert I of Germany.jpg File:Armoiries Bavière-Palatinat.svg Rupert of the Palatinate
(Ruprecht von der Pfalz) 		Wittelsbach 21 August 1400 — 18 May 1410 Great-grandnephew of Louis IV
File:Pisanello 024b.jpg File:Sigismund Arms Hungarian Czech per pale.svg Sigismund
(Sigismund) 		Luxembourg 10 September 1410
/21 July 1411 		3 May 1433 9 December 1437 Son of Charles IV
File:Jošt Lucemburský.jpg File:Armoiries Josse de Luxembourg.svg Jobst of Moravia
(Jobst von Mähren) 		Luxembourg 1 October 1410 — 8 January 1411 Nephew of Charles IV; rival king to Sigismund

Habsburg dynasty

Main article: House of Habsburg
Image Coat of arms Name King Emperor Ended Notes
File:Albrecht II. von Habsburg.jpg File:Arms of Albert II of Habsbourg (Variant).svg Albert II
(Albrecht II.) 		18 March 1438 — 27 October 1439 4th in descent from Albert I;
son-in-law of Sigismund
File:Hans Burgkmair d. Ä. 005.jpg File:Arms of Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor.svg Frederick III
(Friedrich III.) 		2 February 1440 16 March 1452 19 August 1493 4th in descent from Albert I; 2nd cousin of Albert II
File:Albrecht Dürer - Portrait of Maximilian I - Google Art Project.jpg File:Arms of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor.svg Maximilian I
(Maximilian I.) 		16 February 1486 4 February 1508 12 January 1519 Son of Frederick III; King of Germany under his father, 1486–1493; assumed the title "Elected Emperor" in 1508 with the pope's approval
File:Elderly Karl V.jpg File:Arms of Charles V Holy Roman Emperor, Charles I as King of Spain -Or shield variant.svg Charles V
(Karl V.) 		28 June 1519 28 June 1519 3 August 1556 Grandson of Maximilian I; died 21 September 1558. Last Emperor to receive the imperial coronation from the Pope.
File:Hans Bocksberger der Aeltere 001.jpg File:Arms of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (variant).svg Ferdinand I
(Ferdinand I.) 		5 January 1531 27 August 1556 25 July 1564 Grandson of Maximilian I; brother of Charles V; King of Germany under his brother Charles V 1531–1556; last king to be crowned in Aachen Cathedral. Emperor
File:Nicolas Neufchâtel 002.jpg File:Arms of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (variant).svg Maximilian II
(Maximilian II.) 		22 November 1562 25 July 1564 12 October 1576 Son of Ferdinand I;
King of Germany under his father 1562–1564
File:AACHEN, Hans von - Portrait of Emperor Rudolf II - WGA.jpg File:Arms of Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor (variant).svg Rudolf II
(Rudolf II.) 		27 October 1575 12 October 1576 20 January 1612 Son of Maximilian II;
King of Germany under his father, 1575–1576
File:Lucas van Valckenborch - Emperor Matthias as Archduke, with baton.jpg File:Arms of Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor (variant).svg Matthias
(Matthias) 		13 June 1612 13 June 1612 20 March 1619 Son of Maximilian II
File:Kaiser Ferdinand II. 1614.jpg File:Arms of Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor (variant).svg Ferdinand II
(Ferdinand II.) 		28 August 1619 28 August 1619 15 February 1637 Grandson of Ferdinand I
File:Jan van den Hoecke - Portrait of Emperor Ferdinand III.jpg File:Arms of Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor-Or shield variant.svg Ferdinand III
(Ferdinand III.) 		22 December 1636 15 February 1637 2 April 1657 Son of Ferdinand II;
King of Germany under his father 1636–1637
File:Frans Luyckx - Ferdinand IV, King of the Romans.jpg File:Arms of Ferdinand III and Ferdinand VI as Kings of the Romans.svg Ferdinand IV
(Ferdinand IV.) 		31 May 1653 — 9 July 1654 Son of Ferdinand III;
King of Germany under his father
File:Benjamin von Block 001.jpg File:Arms of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor (variant).svg Leopold I
(Leopold I.) 		18 July 1658 18 July 1658 5 May 1705 Son of Ferdinand III
File:JosephI.1705.JPG File:Arms of Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor (variant).svg Joseph I
(Joseph I.) 		23 January 1690 5 May 1705 17 April 1711 Son of Leopold I; King of Germany under his father 1690–1705
File:Workshop of Jacob van Schuppen - Portrait of Emperor Karl VI.png File:Arms of Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor-Or shield variant.svg Charles VI
(Karl VI.) 		12 October 1711 12 October 1711 20 October 1740 Son of Leopold I
File:Carl Albrecht VII, by workshop of George Desmarees.jpg File:Arms of Charles VII Albert, Holy Roman Emperor-Or shield variant.svg Charles VII
(Karl VII.) 		24 January 1742 24 January 1742 20 January 1745 Member of the House of Wittelsbach. Great-great-grandson of Ferdinand II; Husband of Maria Amalia, daughter of Joseph I
File:Martin van Meytens 006.jpg File:Arms of Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor-Or shield variant.svg Francis I
(Franz I.) 		13 September 1745 13 September 1745 18 August 1765 Husband of Maria Theresa I
File:Carl von Sales Bildnis Joseph II posthum 1823.jpg File:Arms of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor-Or shield variant.svg Joseph II
(Joseph II.) 		27 March 1764 18 August 1765 20 February 1790 Son of Maria Theresa I and Francis I; King of Germany under his mother and father 1764–1765
File:Mengs, Anton Raphael - Pietro Leopoldo d'Asburgo Lorena, granduca di Toscana - 1770 - Prado.jpg File:Arms of Leopold II and Francis II, Holy Roman Emperors-Or shield variant.svg Leopold II
(Leopold II.) 		30 September 1790 30 September 1790 1 March 1792 Son of Maria Theresa I and Francis I
File:Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor at age 25, 1792.png File:Arms of Leopold II and Francis II, Holy Roman Emperors-Or shield variant.svg Francis II
(Franz II.) 		5 July 1792 5 July 1792 6 August 1806 Son of Leopold II; Dissolved the Holy Roman Empire; also Emperor of Austria 1804–1835; President of the German Confederation (1815-1835), died 1835

Modern Germany, 1806–1918

Confederation of the Rhine, 1806–1813

Name Portrait Title House Began Ended
Napoleon I
Emperor of the French
King of Italy 		File:Jacques-Louis David - The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries - Google Art Project.jpg Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine File:Arms of the French Empire3.svg
Bonaparte 		12 July 1806 19 October 1813
Karl Theodor von Dalberg,
Prince-Archbishop of Regensburg
Grand Duke of Frankfurt 		File:Portrait of Karl Theodor von Dalberg by Franz Stirnbrand.jpg Prince-primate of the
Confederation of the Rhine 		File:Wappen Großherzogtum Frankfurt.svg
Dalberg 		25 July 1806 26 October 1813
Eugène de Beauharnais,
Grand Duke of Frankfurt 		File:EugeneBeau.jpg Prince-primate of the
Confederation of the Rhine 		File:Blason Eugène de Beauharnais (1781-1824).svg
Beauharnais 		26 October 1813 December
1813

German Confederation, 1815–1866

Name Portrait Title House Began Ended
Francis I,
Emperor of Austria
(Franz I., Kaiser von Österreich) 		File:Joseph Kreutzinger - Kaiser Franz I.jpg Head of the presiding power

(Präsidialmacht) Austria[14]

File:Genealogical arms House of Habsburg-Lorraine 1806.svg
Habsburg-Lorraine 		20 June 1815 2 March 1835
Ferdinand I,
Emperor of Austria
(Ferdinand I., Kaiser von Österreich) 		File:Kaiser Ferdinand I.jpg Head of the presiding power
(Präsidialmacht) Austria[14] 		File:Genealogical arms House of Habsburg-Lorraine 1806.svg
Habsburg-Lorraine 		2 March 1835 12 July 1848
Archduke John of Austria
(Erzherzog Johann von Österreich) 		File:Leopold Kupelwieser - Erzherzog Johann.jpg Regent (Reichsverweser)
of the revolutionary German Empire[15] 		File:Genealogical arms House of Habsburg-Lorraine 1806.svg
Habsburg-Lorraine 		12 July 1848 20 December 1849
Frederick William IV,
King of Prussia
(Friedrich Wilhelm IV., König von Preußen) 		File:Frederick William IV (1795-1861).jpg Emperor of the Germans elect[16] File:Wappen Hohenzollern 2.svg
Hohenzollern 		28 March 1849 28 April 1849
Presidium of the Union
(Unionsvorstand) of the Erfurt Union[17] 		26 May 1849 29 November 1850
Francis Joseph I,
Emperor of Austria
(Franz Joseph I., Kaiser von Österreich) 		File:Franz Joseph of Austria young.jpg Head of the presiding power
(Präsidialmacht) Austria 		File:Genealogical arms House of Habsburg-Lorraine 1806.svg
Habsburg-Lorraine 		1 May 1850 24 August 1866

North German Confederation, 1867–1871

Name Portrait Title House Began Ended
Wilhelm I,
King of Prussia
(Wilhelm I, König von Preußen)
File:Kaiser Wilhelm I. .JPG
 Holder of the Bundespräsidium of the
North German Confederation 		File:Wappen Hohenzollern 2.svg
Hohenzollern 		1 July 1867 1 January 1871[18]

German Empire, 1871–1918

Name Portrait House Began Ended
Wilhelm I
Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig
File:Kaiser Wilhelm I. .JPG
 File:Wappenschild des Deutschen Kaiserreiches (1889-1918).svg
Hohenzollern 		1 January 1871[18] 9 March 1888
Friedrich III
Friedrich Wilhelm Nikolaus Karl
File:Emperor Friedrich III.png
 File:Wappenschild des Deutschen Kaiserreiches (1889-1918).svg
Hohenzollern 		9 March 1888 15 June 1888
Wilhelm II
Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert
File:Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany - 1902.jpg
 File:Wappenschild des Deutschen Kaiserreiches (1889-1918).svg
Hohenzollern 		15 June 1888 28 November 1918[19]

Note on titles

  1. The Kingdom of Germany started out as the eastern section of the Frankish kingdom, which was split by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. The rulers of the eastern area thus called themselves rex Francorum ("king of the Franks"), rex Francorum orientalium ("king of the East Franks"), and later just rex. A reference to the "Germans", indicating the emergence of a German nation of some sort, did not appear until the eleventh century, when the pope referred to his enemy Henry IV as rex teutonicorum, king of the Germans, in order to brand him as a foreigner. The kings reacted by consistently using the title rex Romanorum, king of the Romans, to emphasize their universal rule even before becoming emperor. This title remained until the end of the Empire in 1806, though after 1508 emperors-elect added "king in Germany" to their titles. (Note: in this and related entries, the kings are called kings of Germany, for clarity's sake)
  2. The Kingdom of Germany was never entirely hereditary; rather, ancestry was only one of the factors that determined the succession of kings. During the 10th to 13th centuries, the king was formally elected by the leading nobility in the realm, continuing the Frankish tradition. Gradually the election became the privilege of a group of princes called electors, and the Golden Bull of 1356 formally defined election proceedings.[20]
  3. In the Middle Ages, the king did not assume the title "emperor" (from 982 the full title was Imperator Augustus Romanorum, Venerable Emperor of the Romans) until crowned by the pope. Moving to Italy, he was usually first crowned with the Iron Crown of Lombardy, after which he assumed the title of rex Italiae, king of Italy. After this, he would ride on to Rome and be crowned emperor by the pope.
  4. Maximilian I was the first king to bear the title of emperor-elect. After his march to Rome for his Imperial coronation failed in 1508, he had himself proclaimed emperor-elect with papal consent.[21] His successor Charles V also assumed that title after his coronation in 1520 until he was crowned emperor by the pope in 1530. From Ferdinand I onwards, all emperors did not get crowned by the Pope anymore. At the same time, chosen successors of the emperors held the title of king of the Romans, if elected by the college of electors during their predecessor's lifetime.

Emperors are listed in bold. Rival kings, anti-kings, and junior co-regents are italicized.

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ His father Louis the Pious is both Louis I of France and Louis I of Germany.
  2. ↑ "Ludwig der Deutsche". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  3. ↑ "Karlman". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  4. ↑ "Louis III". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 22 March 2024.
  5. ↑ Enumerated after Emperor Charles the Great (Charlemagne) and Charles II the Bald.
  6. ↑ "Karl III". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  7. ↑ "Arnulf". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  8. ↑ "Arnulf". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
  9. ↑ "Ludwing das Kind". Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  10. ↑ "Louis IV". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 22 March 2024.
  11. ↑ "Konrad I." Neue Deutsche Biographie.
  12. ↑ Böhmer, Johann Friedrich. (1893). Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter den Herrschern aus dem Sæchsischen Hause, 919-1024. p. 4. "Der wahltag ist nicht überliefert... er fallt vielmehr zwischen 12. und 24. mai 919". [The day of the election is not recorded... but it falls between 12 and 24 May 919]
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 Medieval Europeans: studies in ethnic identity and national perspectives in medieval Europe By Alfred P. Smyth, Palgrave Macmillan (1998), p. 64
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Ernst Rudolf Huber: Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789. Vol. I: Reform und Restauration 1789 bis 1830. 2nd edition, Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart [et.al.] 1967, p. 589.
  15. ↑ Ernst Rudolf Huber: Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789. Vol. I: Reform und Restauration 1789 bis 1830. 2nd edition, Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart [et.al.] 1967, pp. 625–627, 808.
  16. ↑ Elected Emperor of the Germans by the Frankfurt National Assembly on 28 March 1849, but refused the crown on 28 April 1849. Manfred Botzenhart: Deutscher Parlamentarismus in der Revolutionszeit 1848–1850. Droste Verlag, Düsseldorf 1977, pp. 697/698.
  17. ↑ Anlage II: Additional-Akte zu dem Entwurf der Verfassung des Deutschen Reichs. In: Thüringer Landtag Erfurt (ed.): 150 Jahre Erfurter Unionsparlament (1850–2000) (= Schriften zur Geschichte des Parlamentarismus in Thüringen. H. 15) Wartburg Verlag, Weimar 2000, ISBN 3-86160-515-5, S. 27–44, here pp. 185–187.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Ernst Rudolf Huber: Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789. Band III: Bismarck und das Reich. 3. Auflage, Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 1988, S. 750/751.
  19. ↑ His abdication was announced by the Chancellor on 9 November, and the Emperor went into exile in the Netherlands. He did not formally abdicate until 28 November.
  20. ↑ Germany - Britannica Educational Publishing
  21. ↑ Terjanian, Pierre, ed. (2 October 2019). The Last Knight: The Art, Armor, and Ambition of Maximilian I. Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-1-58839-674-7. Retrieved 5 March 2022.

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