Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

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Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.

Paradigm summaries

A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.

  • Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), or futures
    • Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behaviour)
  • Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm)
  • Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. spreadsheets)
  • Declarative programming – describes what computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes c.f. imperative programming (functional and logic programming are major subgroups of declarative programming)
  • Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
  • Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
  • Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
  • Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
  • Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
  • Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
    • Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which a compiler uses templates to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
    • Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
  • Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
    • Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
    • Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
  • Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
  • Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
  • Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink); also termed diagrammatic programming[1]

Language overview

List of multi-paradigm programming languages
Language
Paradigm count
Concurrent
Constraints
Dataflow
Declarative
Distributed
Functional
Metaprogramming
Generic
Imperative
Logic
Reflection
Object-oriented
Pipelines
Visual
Rule-based
 Other
Ada[2][3][4][5][6] 5 Yes[a 1] — — — Yes — — Yes Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
ALF 2 — — — — — Yes — — — Yes — — — — — —
AmigaE
[citation needed]		 2 — — — — — — — — Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
APL 3 — — — — — Yes — — Yes — — — — — — Array (multi-dimensional)
BETA
[citation needed]		 3 — — — — — Yes — — Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
C++ 7 (15) Yes[7][8][9] Library[10] Library[11][12] Library[13][14] Library[15][16] Yes Yes[17] Yes[a 3] Yes Library[18][19] Library[20] Yes[a 2] Yes[21] — Library[22] Array (multi-dimensional; using STL)
C# 6 (7) Yes — Library[a 4] — — Yes[a 5] — Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — Reactive[a 6]
ChucK
[citation needed]		 3 Yes — — — — — — — Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
Claire 2 — — — — — Yes — — — — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
Clojure 5 Yes[23][24] — — Yes — Yes[25] Yes[26] — — Library[27] — — Yes[28] Editor[29] — Multiple dispatch,[30] Agents[31]
Common Lisp 7 (14) Library[32] Library[33] Library[34] Yes[35] Library[36] Yes Yes Yes[37] Yes Library[38] Yes Yes[a 7][a 2][39] Library[40] Library[41] Library[42] Multiple dispatch, meta-OOP system,[43] Language is extensible via metaprogramming.
Curl 5 — — — — — Yes — Yes[a 3] Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
Curry 4 Yes Yes — — — Yes — — — Yes — — — — — —
D (version 2.0)[44][45] 7 Yes[a 8] — — — — Yes Yes[46][a 3] Yes[a 3] Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
Delphi 3 — — — — — — — Yes[a 3] Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
Dylan
[citation needed]		 3 — — — — — Yes — — — — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
E 3 Yes — — — Yes — — — — — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
ECMAScript[47][48] (ActionScript, E4X, JavaScript, JScript) 4 (5) Partial[a 9][a 10] — — Library[49][50] — Yes — — Yes — Yes Yes[a 11] Library[51][52] Editor[53] — Reactive,[a 12][54] event driven[a 13][a 14]
Erlang 3 Yes — — Yes Yes Yes — — — — — — Yes — — —
Elixir 4 Yes — — — Yes Yes Yes — — — — — Yes — — —
Elm 6 Yes — Yes Yes — Yes (pure)[a 15] — Yes — — — — Yes — — Reactive
F# 7 (8) Yes[a 8] — Library[a 4] Yes — Yes — Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — Reactive[a 6]
Fortran 4 (5) Yes — — — — Yes[a 15] — Yes[a 16] — — — Yes[a 2] — — — Array (multi-dimensional)
Go 4 Yes — — — — — — — Yes — Yes — Yes — — —
Haskell 8 (15) Yes Library[55] Library[56] Yes Library[57] Yes (lazy) (pure)[a 15] Yes[58] Yes Yes Library[59] — Partial[a 17] Yes Yes Library[60] Literate, reactive, dependent types (partial)
Io 4 Yes[a 8] — — — — Yes — — Yes — — Yes[a 11] — — — —
J
[citation needed]		 3 — — — — — Yes — — Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
Java 6 Yes Library[61] Library[62] — — Yes — Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
Julia 9 (17) Yes Library[63] Library[64][65] Library[66] Yes Yes (eager) Yes Yes Yes Library[67] Yes Yes[a 18] Yes — Library[68][69] Multiple dispatch,
Array (multi-dimensional); optionally lazy[70] and reactive (with libraries)
Kotlin 8 Yes — — — — Yes Yes Yes Yes — Yes Yes Yes — — —
LabVIEW 4 Yes — Yes — — — — — — — — Yes — Yes — —
Lava 2 — — — — — — — — — — — Yes[a 2] — Yes — —
LispWorks (version 6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog), CORBA) 9 Yes — — — Yes Yes Yes — Yes Yes Yes Yes[a 2] — — Yes —
Lua
[citation needed]		 3 — — — — — Yes — — Yes — — Yes[a 11] — — — —
MATLAB 6 (10) Toolbox[71] Toolbox[72] Yes[73] — Toolbox[74] — Yes[75] Yes[76] — — Yes[77] Yes[78] — Yes[79] — Array (multi-dimensional)
Nemerle 7 Yes — — — — Yes Yes Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
Object Pascal 4 Yes — — — — Yes — — Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
OCaml 4 — — — — — Yes — Yes Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
Oz 11 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes — — Yes Yes — Yes[a 2] Yes — Yes —
Perl
[citation needed]		 8 (9) Yes[80] — Yes[81] — — Yes Yes — Yes — Yes[a 2] Yes[a 2] Yes — — —
PHP[82][83][84] 4 — — — — — Yes — — Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
Poplog 3 — — — — — Yes — — Yes Yes — — — — — —
Prograph 3 — — Yes — — — — — — — — Yes[a 2] — Yes — —
Python 5 (10) Library[85][86] Library[87] — — Library[88] Yes Yes[89][90] Yes[91][92] Yes Library[93] Yes Yes[a 2] — Editor[94] — Structured
R 4 (6) Library[95] — — — Library[96] Yes — — Yes — Yes Yes Yes[97] — — Array (multi-dimensional)
Racket 10 Yes[98] Yes[99] Yes[100] — Yes[101] Yes Yes — Yes Yes Yes Yes — — — Lazy[102]
Raku 10 Yes[103] Library[104] Yes[105] — Library[106] Yes Yes[107] Yes[108] Yes — Yes[109] Yes[110] Yes — — Multiple dispatch, lazy lists, reactive.
ROOP 3 — — — — — — — — Yes Yes — — — — Yes —
Ruby 5 — — — — — Yes Yes — Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
Rust (version 1.0.0-alpha) 6 Yes[a 8] — — — — Yes Yes[111][112] Yes[113] Yes — — Yes — — — Linear, affline, and ownership types
Sather
[citation needed]		 2 — — — — — Yes — — — — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
Scala[114][115] 9 Yes[a 8] — Yes[a 19] Yes — Yes Yes Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — —
Simula
[citation needed]		 2 — — — — — — — — Yes — — Yes[a 2] — — — —
SISAL 3 Yes — Yes — — Yes — — — — — — — — — —
Spreadsheets 2 — — — — — Yes — — — — — — — Yes — —
Swift 7 Yes — — — — Yes Yes Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — Block-structured
Tcl with Snit extension
[citation needed]		 3 — — — — — Yes[116] — — Yes — — Yes[a 11][117] — — — —
Visual Basic .NET 6 (7) Yes — Library[a 4] — — Yes — Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] — — — Reactive[a 6]
Windows PowerShell 6 — — — — — Yes — Yes Yes — Yes Yes[a 2] Yes — — —
Wolfram Language & Mathematica 13[118] (14) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes[119] — Yes Knowledge Based

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ rendezvous and monitor-like based
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31 2.32 2.33 2.34 class-based
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 template metaprogramming
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 using TPL Dataflow
  5. ↑ only lambda support (lazy functional programming)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 using Reactive Extensions (Rx)
  7. ↑ multiple dispatch, method combinations
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 actor programming
  9. ↑ promises, native extensions
  10. ↑ using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Prototype-based
  12. ↑ using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)
  13. ↑ in Node.js via their events module
  14. ↑ in browsers via their native EventTarget API
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 purely functional
  16. ↑ parameterized classes
  17. ↑ immutable
  18. ↑ multiple dispatch, not traditional single
  19. ↑ Akka Archived 2013-01-19 at the Wayback Machine

Citations

  1. ↑ Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A". Proceedings of AUTOTESTCON '94 (IEEEXplore). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). pp. 211–220. doi:10.1109/AUTEST.1994.381508. ISBN 978-0-7803-1910-3. S2CID 62509261.
  2. ↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization
  3. ↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems
  4. ↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units
  5. ↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms
  6. ↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions
  7. ↑ Thread support
  8. ↑ Atomics support
  9. ↑ Memory model
  10. ↑ Gecode
  11. ↑ SystemC
  12. ↑ Boost.Iostreams
  13. ↑ Boolinq
  14. ↑ "AraRat" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-08-19. Retrieved 2019-09-15.
  15. ↑ OpenMPI
  16. ↑ Boost.MPI
  17. ↑ Boost.MPL
  18. ↑ LC++
  19. ↑ Castor Archived 2013-01-25 at the Wayback Machine
  20. ↑ Reflect Library
  21. ↑ N3534
  22. ↑ Boost.Spirit
  23. ↑ Clojure - Concurrent Programming
  24. ↑ Clojure - core.async
  25. ↑ Clojure - Functional Programming
  26. ↑ Clojure - Macros
  27. ↑ Clojure - core.logic
  28. ↑ Clojure - Threading Macros Guide
  29. ↑ "Light Table". 2019-04-08.
  30. ↑ Multimethods and Hierarchies
  31. ↑ Agents and Asynchronous Actions
  32. ↑ "concurrency". CLiki.
  33. ↑ [1] constraint programming inside CL through extensions
  34. ↑ [2] dataflow extension
  35. ↑ [3] by creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative
  36. ↑ [4] MPI, etc via language extensions
  37. ↑ template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)
  38. ↑ [5] [6] [7] Prolog implemented as a language extension
  39. ↑ Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.
  40. ↑ implemented by the user via a short macro, example of implementation
  41. ↑ - Visual programming tool based on Common Lisp
  42. ↑ [8] rule-based programming extension
  43. ↑ [9] Archived 2018-04-26 at the Wayback Machine through the Meta Object Protocol
  44. ↑ D Language Feature Table
  45. ↑ Phobos std.algorithm
  46. ↑ D language String Mixins
  47. ↑ The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.
  48. ↑ Object-Oriented Programming in JavaScript Archived 2019-02-10 at the Wayback Machine gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.
  49. ↑ "React – A JavaScript library for building user interfaces". 2019-04-08.
  50. ↑ "TNG-Hooks". GitHub. 2019-04-08.
  51. ↑ "Lodash documentation". 2019-04-08.
  52. ↑ "mori". 2019-04-08.
  53. ↑ "Light Table". 2019-04-08.
  54. ↑ "TNG-Hooks". GitHub. 2019-04-08.
  55. ↑ "Prolog embedding". Haskell.org.
  56. ↑ "Functional Reactive Programming". HaskellWiki.
  57. ↑ Cloud Haskell
  58. ↑ "Template Haskell". HaskellWiki.
  59. ↑ "Logict: A backtracking logic-programming monad". Haskell.org.
  60. ↑ Kollmansberger, Steve; Erwig, Martin (30 May 2006). "Haskell Rules: Embedding Rule Systems in Haskell" (PDF). Oregon State University.
  61. ↑ https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=331 JSR 331: Constraint Programming API
  62. ↑ https://github.com/GoogleCloudPlatform/DataflowJavaSDK Google Cloud Platform Dataflow SDK
  63. ↑ "JuliaOpt/JuMP.jl". GitHub. JuliaOpt. 11 February 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
  64. ↑ "GitHub - MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl". GitHub. 2019-01-15.
  65. ↑ "GitHub - JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl: Reactive programming primitives for Julia". GitHub. 2018-12-28.
  66. ↑ https://github.com/davidanthoff/Query.jl Query almost anything in julia
  67. ↑ https://github.com/lilinjn/LilKanren.jl A collection of Kanren implementations in Julia
  68. ↑ "GitHub - abeschneider/PEGParser.jl: PEG Parser for Julia". GitHub. 2018-12-03.
  69. ↑ "GitHub - gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl: A PEG parser generator for Julia". GitHub. 2017-08-03.
  70. ↑ Lazy https://github.com/MikeInnes/Lazy.jl
  71. ↑ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  72. ↑ "Write Constraints". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  73. ↑ "Getting Started with SimEvents". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  74. ↑ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  75. ↑ "Execute MATLAB expression in text - MATLAB eval". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  76. ↑ "Determine class of object". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  77. ↑ "Class Metadata". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  78. ↑ "Object-Oriented Programming". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  79. ↑ "Simulink". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  80. ↑ interpreter based threads
  81. ↑ Higher Order Perl
  82. ↑ PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions
  83. ↑ PHP Manual, Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5)
  84. ↑ PHP Manual, Anonymous functions
  85. ↑ "Parallel Processing and Multiprocessing in Python". Python Wiki. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  86. ↑ "threading — Higher-level threading interface". docs.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  87. ↑ "python-constraint". pypi.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  88. ↑ "DistributedProgramming". Python Wiki. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
  89. ↑ "Chapter 9. Metaprogramming". chimera.labs.oreilly.com. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
  90. ↑ "Metaprogramming". readthedocs.io. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
  91. ↑ "PEP 443 – Single-dispatch generic functions". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
  92. ↑ "PEP 484 – Type Hints". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
  93. ↑ "PyDatalog". Retrieved 22 October 2016.
  94. ↑ "Light Table". 2019-04-08.
  95. ↑ "Futureverse".
  96. ↑ "future batchtools".
  97. ↑ "Magrittr: A Forward Pipe Operator for R". cran.r-project.org\access-date=13 July 2017. 17 November 2020.
  98. ↑ Racket Guide: Concurrency and Synchronization
  99. ↑ The Rosette Guide
  100. ↑ FrTime: A Language for Reactive Programs
  101. ↑ Racket Guide: Distributed Places
  102. ↑ Lazy Racket
  103. ↑ Channels and other mechanisms
  104. ↑ "Problem Solver module".
  105. ↑ Feed operator
  106. ↑ https://github.com/perl6/doc/issues/1744#issuecomment-360565196 Cro module
  107. ↑ "Meta-programming: What, why and how". 2011-12-14.
  108. ↑ https://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2009/12/18/day-18-roles/ Parametrized Roles
  109. ↑ "Meta-object protocol (MOP)".
  110. ↑ https://docs.perl6.org/language/classtut Classes and Roles
  111. ↑ "The Rust macros guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
  112. ↑ "The Rust compiler plugins guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
  113. ↑ The Rust Reference §6.1.3.1
  114. ↑ An Overview of the Scala Programming Language
  115. ↑ Scala Language Specification
  116. ↑ "Tcl Programming/Introduction". en.wikibooks.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
  117. ↑ "TCLLIB - Tcl Standard Library: snitfaq". sourceforge.net. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
  118. ↑ Notes for Programming Language Experts, Wolfram Language Documentation.
  119. ↑ External Programs, Wolfram Language Documentation.

References

  • Jim Coplien, Multiparadigm Design for C++, Addison-Wesley Professional, 1998.
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