List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire

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Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
Osmanlı padişahı
Imperial
File:Osmanli-nisani.svg
Imperial Coat of arms (from 1882)
File:Sultan Mehmed VI of the Ottoman Empire.jpg
Last to reign
Mehmed VI
4 July 1918 – 1 November 1922
Details
StyleHis Imperial Majesty
First monarchOsman I (c. 1299–1323/4)
Last monarchMehmed VI (1918–1922)
Formationc. 1299
Abolition1 November 1922
ResidencePalaces in Istanbul:
AppointerHereditary
File:Imperial standard of the Ottoman Sultan.svg
Ottoman Imperial Standard
File:Ottoman sultans family tree (EN) by shakko.jpg
Family tree
File:OttomanEmpire1683.png
Ottoman Empire in 1683, at the height of its territorial expansion in Europe.

The sultans of the Ottoman Empire (Turkish: Osmanlı padişahları), who were all members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the transcontinental empire from its perceived inception in 1299 to its dissolution in 1922. At its height, the Ottoman Empire spanned an area from Hungary in the north to Yemen in the south and from Algeria in the west to Iraq in the east. Administered at first from the city of Söğüt since before 1280 and then from the city of Bursa since 1323 or 1324, the empire's capital was moved to Adrianople (now known as Edirne in English) in 1363 following its conquest by Murad I and then to Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) in 1453 following its conquest by Mehmed II.[1] The Ottoman Empire's early years have been the subject of varying narratives, due to the difficulty of discerning fact from legend. The empire came into existence at the end of the 13th century, and its first ruler (and the namesake of the Empire) was Osman I. According to later, often unreliable Ottoman tradition, Osman was a descendant of the Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks.[2] The eponymous Ottoman dynasty he founded endured for six centuries through the reigns of 36 sultans. The Ottoman Empire disappeared as a result of the defeat of the Central Powers, with whom it had allied itself during World War I. The partitioning of the Empire by the victorious Allies and the ensuing Turkish War of Independence led to the abolition of the sultanate in 1922 and the birth of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1922.[3]

Names

The sultan was also referred to as the padishah (Ottoman Turkish: پادشاه, romanized: pâdişâh, French: Padichah). In Ottoman usage the word "Padisha" was usually used except "sultan" was used when he was directly named.[4] In several European languages, he was referred to as the Grand Turk, as the ruler of the Turks,[5] or simply the "Great Lord" (il Gran Signore, le grand seigneur) especially in the 16th century. Names of the sultan in languages used by ethnic minorities:[4]

  • Arabic: In some documents "padishah" was replaced by "malik" ("king")[4]
  • Bulgarian: In earlier periods Bulgarian people called him the "tsar". The translation of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 instead used direct translations of "sultan" (Sultan) and "padishah" (Padišax)[4]
  • Greek: In earlier periods the Greeks used the Byzantine Empire-style name "basileus". The translation of the Ottoman Constitution of 1876 instead used a direct transliterations of "sultan" (Σουλτάνος Soultanos) and "padishah" (ΠΑΔΙΣΑΧ padisach).[4]
  • Judaeo-Spanish: Especially in older documents, El Rey ("the king") was used. In addition some Ladino documents used sultan (in Hebrew characters: שולטן and סולטן).[4]

State organisation of the Ottoman Empire

Main article: State organisation of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was an absolute monarchy during much of its existence. By the second half of the fifteenth century, the sultan sat at the apex of a hierarchical system and acted in political, military, judicial, social, and religious capacities under a variety of titles.[a] He was theoretically responsible only to God and God's law (the Islamic شریعت şeriat, known in Arabic as شريعة sharia), of which he was the chief executor. His heavenly mandate (Kut) was reflected in Islamic titles such as "shadow of God on Earth" (ظل الله في العالم ẓıll Allāh fī'l-ʿalem) and "caliph of the face of the earth" (خلیفه روی زمین Ḫalife-i rū-yi zemīn).[6] All offices were filled by his authority, and every law was issued by him in the form of a decree called firman (فرمان). He was the supreme military commander and had the official title to all land.[7] Osman (died 1323/4) son of Ertuğrul was the first ruler of the Ottoman state, which during his reign constituted a small principality (beylik) in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire. After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, Ottoman sultans came to regard themselves as the successors of the Roman Empire, hence their occasional use of the titles caesar (قیصر qayser) of Rûm, and emperor,[6][8][9] as well as the caliph of Islam.[b] Newly enthroned Ottoman rulers were girded with the Sword of Osman, an important ceremony that served as the equivalent of European monarchs' coronation.[10] A non-girded sultan was not eligible to have his children included in the line of succession.[11] Although absolute in theory and in principle, the sultan's powers were limited in practice. Political decisions had to take into account the opinions and attitudes of important members of the dynasty, the bureaucratic and military establishments, as well as religious leaders.[7] Beginning in the last decades of the sixteenth century, the role of the Ottoman sultans in the government of the empire began to decrease, in a period known as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire. Despite being barred from inheriting the throne,[12] women of the imperial harem—especially the reigning sultan's mother, known as the valide sultan—also played an important behind-the-scenes political role, effectively ruling the empire during the period known as the Sultanate of Women.[13] Constitutionalism was established during the reign Abdul Hamid II, who thus became the empire's last absolute ruler and its reluctant first constitutional monarch.[14] Although Abdul Hamid II abolished the parliament and the constitution to return to personal rule in 1878, he was again forced in 1908 to reinstall constitutionalism and was deposed. Since 2021, the head of the House of Osman has been Harun Osman, a great-grandson of Abdul Hamid II.[15]

List of sultans

File:Sultans of the Ottoman Dynasty.jpg
Poster showing sultans of the Ottoman dynasty, from Osman I (upper left corner) to Mehmed V (large portrait in the center)
See also: Ottoman family tree and List of burial places of Ottoman sultans

The table below lists Ottoman sultans, as well as the last Ottoman caliph, in chronological order. The tughras were the calligraphic seals or signatures used by Ottoman sultans. They were displayed on all official documents as well as on coins, and were far more important in identifying a sultan than his portrait. The "Notes" column contains information on each sultan's parentage and fate. Early Ottomans practiced what historian Quataert has described as "survival of the fittest, not eldest, son": when a sultan died, his sons had to fight each other for the throne until a victor emerged. Because of the infighting and numerous fratricides that occurred, there was often a time gap between a sultan's death date and the accession date of his successor.[16] In 1617, the law of succession changed from survival of the fittest to a system based on agnatic seniority (اکبریت ekberiyet), whereby the throne went to the oldest male of the family. This in turn explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his own son, but usually by an uncle or brother.[17] Agnatic seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate, despite unsuccessful attempts in the 19th century to replace it with primogeniture.[18] Note that pretenders and co-claimants during the Ottoman Interregnum are also listed here, but they are not included in the formal numbering of sultans.

No. Sultan Portrait Reign Tughra Notes Coinage
Rise of the Ottoman Empire
(1299 – 1453)
1 Osman I File:I Osman.jpg c. 1299 – c. 1324[19]
(25 years~) 		—[c] File:Osman Gazi Coin.jpg
2 Orhan File:Metehanzade orhangazi.jpg c. 1324 – March 1362
(38 years~) 		Tughra of Orhan File:Orhan Gazi Akçe.jpg
3 Murad I[b] File:Murad I.jpg March 1362 – 15 June 1389
(27 years, 3 months) 		Tughra of Murad I File:1555 osmanli 1 murat nm nd.jpg
4 Bayezid I File:Baiazeth. P. IIII.jpg 15 June 1389 – 20 July 1402
(13 years, 35 days) 		Tughra of Bayezid I File:Bayezid I AR akce.png
Ottoman Interregnum[d]
(20 July 1402 – 5 July 1413)
— İsa Çelebi File:İsa Çelebi.jpg January – March/May 1403
(3–5 months) 		— —
— Süleyman Çelebi File:Arolsen Klebeband 01 449 4.jpg 20 July 1402 –
17 February 1411[22]
(8 years, 212 days) 		File:Suleyman Celebi Tughra.png
  • Acquired the title of The Sultan of Rumelia for the European portion of the empire, a short period after the Ottoman defeat at Ankara.
  • Murdered on 17 February 1411.[22]
 File:Süleyman Çelebi coin 1404.png
— Musa Çelebi File:Paolo Veronese (Nachfolger) - Bildnis des Sultans Moise - 2238 - Bavarian State Painting Collections.jpg 18 February 1411 –
5 July 1413[23]
(2 years, 137 days) 		— File:Akçe - Musa Çelebi.png
— Mehmed Çelebi File:Mehmed I miniature.jpg 1403 – 5 July 1413
(10 years) 		— File:Akçe - Mehmed Çelebi in the name of Timur.png
Sultanate resumed
5 Mehmed I File:Mehmed I miniature.jpg 5 July 1413 – 26 May 1421
(7 years, 325 days) 		Tughra of Mehmed I —
— Mustafa Çelebi — January 1419 – May 1422
(3 years, 4 months) 		— File:Akçe - Mustafa Çelebi.png
6 Murad II File:Paolo Veronese (Nachfolger) - Sultan Murad II. - 2237 - Bavarian State Painting Collections.jpg 25 June 1421 –
August 1444
(23 years, 2 months) 		Tughra of Murad II File:Akçe of Murad II Obverse.JPGFile:Akçe of Murad II Reverse.JPG
7 Mehmed II File:Bellini, Gentile - Sultan Mehmet II.jpg August 1444 –
September 1446
(2 years, 1 month) 		Tughra of Mehmed II
  • First reign
  • Son of Murad II and Hüma Hatun.[21]
  • Surrendered the throne to his father after having asked him to return to power, along with rising threats from Janissaries.
 File:Akce - Mehmed II First reign.png
(6) Murad II File:Paolo Veronese (Nachfolger) - Sultan Murad II. - 2237 - Bavarian State Painting Collections.jpg September 1446 –
3 February 1451
(4 years, 5 months) 		Tughra of Murad II
  • Second reign
  • Forced to return to the throne following a Janissary insurgence.[25]
  • Reigned until his death.
 —
Growth of the Ottoman Empire
(1453–1550)
(7) Mehmed II File:Bellini, Gentile - Sultan Mehmet II.jpg 3 February 1451 –
3 May 1481
(30 years, 89 days) 		Tughra of Mehmed II File:Coin of Mehmed II 1451, second reign.png
8 Bayezid II File:Beyazid II.jpg 19 May 1481 –
25 April 1512
(30 years, 342 days) 		Tughra of Bayezid II File:1692 osmanli 2 beyazid ankara 886.jpg
— Cem Sultan File:Cem-in-italy.jpg 28 May – 20 June 1481
(23 days) 		Tughra of Cem
  • Son of Mehmed II
  • Acquired the title Cem bin Mehmed Han.[26]
  • Died in exile
 File:Akçe - Cem Sultan.png
9 Selim I File:Nakkaş Selim.jpg 25 April 1512 –
21 September 1520
(8 years, 149 days) 		Tughra of Selim I File:Akçe of Selim I Constantinople mint 1512.jpg
10 Suleiman I File:EmperorSuleiman.jpg 30 September 1520 –
6 September 1566
(45 years, 341 days) 		Tughra of Suleiman I File:Sultani of Suleiman I, 1520.jpg
Transformation of the Ottoman Empire
(1550–1700)
11 Selim II File:Portrait Of Sultan Selim II.jpg 29 September 1566 –
15 December 1574
(8 years, 77 days) 		Tughra of Selim II File:Sultani LACMA M.2006.143.1 (2 of 2).jpgFile:Sultani LACMA M.2006.143.1 (1 of 2).jpg
12 Murad III File:Sultan Murad III.jpeg 27 December 1574 –
16 January 1595
(20 years, 20 days) 		Tughra of Murad III File:Sequin Murad III 1576.jpg
13 Mehmed III File:Sultan Mehmet III of the Ottoman Empire.jpg 16 January 1595 –
22 December 1603
(8 years, 340 days) 		Tughra of Mehmed III File:Coin of Mehmed III.png
14 Ahmed I File:صورة للشاهزاده أحمد 2013-12-19 09-18.jpg 22 December 1603 –
22 November 1617
(13 years, 335 days) 		Tughra of Ahmed I File:Post-medieval coin, Uncertain denomination of Ahmed I (FindID 489958).jpg
15 Mustafa I File:Mustafa I portrait.jpg 22 November 1617 –
26 February 1618
(96 days) 		Tughra of Mustafa I —
16 Osman II File:Osman 2.jpg 26 February 1618 –
19 May 1622
(4 years, 82 days) 		Tughra of Osman II File:Sultani - Osman II.jpg
(15) Mustafa I File:Mustafa I portrait.jpg 20 May 1622 –
10 September 1623
(1 year, 113 days) 		Tughra of Mustafa I
  • Second reign.
  • Returned to the throne after the assassination of his nephew Osman II.
  • Deposed due to his poor mental health and confined until his death in Istanbul on 20 January 1639.
 —
17 Murad IV File:Murad IV.jpg 10 September 1623 –
8 February 1640
(16 years, 151 days) 		Tughra of Murad IV —
18 Ibrahim File:Ibrahim Deli.jpg 9 February 1640 –
8 August 1648
(8 years, 181 days) 		Tughra of Ibrahim —
19 Mehmed IV File:Sultan Mehmed IV (2).jpg 8 August 1648 –
8 November 1687
(39 years, 92 days) 		Tughra of Mehmed IV —
20 Suleiman II File:Süleyman II.jpg 8 November 1687 –
22 June 1691
(3 years, 226 days) 		Tughra of Suleiman II File:Kupfer Not-Akce 1099 H., Qustantiniya (Konstantinopel-Istanbul)-210-00912q00.jpg
21 Ahmed II File:Ahmet II.jpg 22 June 1691 –
6 February 1695
(3 years, 229 days) 		Tughra of Ahmed II —
22 Mustafa II File:Mustafa II dressed in full armour.JPG 6 February 1695 –
22 August 1703
(8 years, 197 days) 		Tughra of Mustafa II File:1 Kuruș Mustafa II of Ottoman 1695-1704.png
Stagnation and reform of the Ottoman Empire
(1700–1827)
23 Ahmed III File:Levni 002 detail.jpg 22 August 1703 –
1 October 1730
(27 years, 40 days) 		Tughra of Ahmed III File:Sultani of Ahmed III, 1703.jpg
24 Mahmud I File:Sultan Mahmud I – Jean Baptiste Vanmour.jpg (cropped).jpg 2 October 1730 –
13 December 1754
(24 years, 72 days) 		Tughra of Mahmud I File:Sequin of Mahmud I.jpg
25 Osman III File:III.Osman.webp 13 December 1754 –
30 October 1757
(2 years, 321 days) 		Tughra of Osman III File:Turchia, osman III, moneta d'oro, 1754-1757.JPG
26 Mustafa III File:Sultan Mustafa III.jpg 30 October 1757 –
21 January 1774
(16 years, 83 days) 		Tughra of Mustafa III File:1 Piastre 1183 Mustafa III (obv)-8477.jpgFile:1 Piastre 1183 Mustafa III (rev)-8478.jpg
27 Abdul Hamid I File:Portrait of Abdülhamid I of the Ottoman Empire.jpg 21 January 1774 –
7 April 1789
(15 years, 76 days) 		Tughra of Abdul Hamid I File:M64 10para Constantinople KM383 1ar85 (8645875592).jpg
28 Selim III File:Joseph Warnia-Zarzecki - Sultan Selim III - Google Art Project.jpg 7 April 1789 –
29 May 1807
(18 years, 52 days) 		Tughra of Selim III File:Rial Tunisien - Selim III - 1215 AH - 1800 AD.jpg
29 Mustafa IV File:IV. Mustafa.jpg 29 May 1807 –
28 July 1808
(1 year, 60 days) 		Tughra of Mustafa IV —
Modernization of the Ottoman Empire
(1827–1908)
30 Mahmud II File:Mahmud II.jpg 28 July 1808 –
1 July 1839
(30 years, 338 days) 		Tughra of Mahmud II File:TURKEY, SULTAN MAHMUD II 1818 -2 RUMI GOLD b - Flickr - woody1778a.jpgFile:TURKEY, SULTAN MAHMUD II 1818 -2 RUMI GOLD a - Flickr - woody1778a.jpg
31 Abdulmejid I Abdulmejid portrait 1 July 1839 –
25 June 1861
(21 years, 359 days) 		Tughra of Abdulmejid I File:20 Piastres 1270 Abdülmecid I (obv)-8467.jpgFile:20 Piastres 1270 Abdülmecid I (rev)-8468.jpg
32 Abdulaziz File:4f3bdb2b3891715176c6580e6ab6cb4b--ottoman-empire-sultan.jpg 25 June 1861 –
30 May 1876
(14 years, 340 days) 		Tughra of Abdulaziz
  • Son of Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Sultan.
  • Deposed by his ministers.
  • Found dead (suicide or murder) five days later.
 File:10 Para 1280 Abdülaziz (obv)-8470.jpgFile:10 Para 1280 Abdülaziz (rev)-8471.jpg
33 Murad V File:Sultan Murad V., 1876.jpg 30 May – 31 August 1876
(93 days) 		Tughra of Murad V —
34 Abdul Hamid II File:Sultan Gazi Abdül Hamid II - السلطان الغازي عبد الحميد الثاني.png 31 August 1876 –
27 April 1909
(32 years, 239 days) 		Tughra of Abdul Hamid II File:1293 Ottoman 2 piatres.jpg
35 Mehmed V File:Sultan Muhammed Chan V., Kaiser der Osmanen 1915 C. Pietzner.jpg 27 April 1909 –
3 July 1918
(9 years, 67 days) 		Tughra of Mehmed V File:Lira of Mehmed V, 1911.jpg
36 Mehmed VI File:Sultan Mehmed VI of the Ottoman Empire.jpg 4 July 1918 –
1 November 1922
(4 years, 120 days) 		Tughra of Mehmed VI File:36-1336-01-500K-kost-au.jpg
Caliph under the Grand National Assembly of Turkey
(1 November 1922 – 3 March 1924)
— Abdulmejid II File:Portrait Caliph Abdulmecid II.jpg 19 November 1922 –
3 March 1924
(1 year, 106 days) 		—
[c] 		—

See also

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Notes

a1 2 : The full style of the Ottoman ruler was complex, as it was composed of several titles and evolved over the centuries. The title of sultan was used continuously by all rulers almost from the beginning. However, because it was widespread in the Muslim world, the Ottomans quickly adopted variations of it to dissociate themselves from other Muslim rulers of lesser status. Murad I, the third Ottoman monarch, styled himself sultân-ı âzam (سلطان اعظم, the most exalted sultan) and hüdavendigar (خداوندگار, emperor), titles used by the Anatolian Seljuqs and the Mongol Ilkhanids respectively. His son Bayezid I adopted the style Sultan of Rûm, Rûm being an old Islamic name for the Roman Empire. The combining of the Islamic and Central Asian heritages of the Ottomans led to the adoption of the title that became the standard designation of the Ottoman ruler: Sultan [Name] Khan.[31] Ironically, although the title of sultan is most often associated in the Western world with the Ottomans, people within Turkey generally use the title of padishah far more frequently when referring to rulers of the Ottoman Dynasty.[32]
b1 2 3 : The Ottoman Caliphate symbolized their spiritual power, whereas the sultanate represented their temporal power. According to Ottoman historiography, Murad I adopted the title of caliph during his reign (1362 to 1389), and Selim I later strengthened the caliphal authority during his conquest of Egypt in 1516-1517. However, the general consensus among modern scholars is that Ottoman rulers had used the title of caliph before the conquest of Egypt, as early as during the reign of Murad I (1362–1389), who brought most of the Balkans under Ottoman rule and established the title of sultan in 1383. It is currently agreed that the caliphate "disappeared" for two-and-a-half centuries, before being revived with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed between the Ottoman Empire and Catherine II of Russia in 1774. The treaty was highly symbolic, since it marked the first international recognition of the Ottomans' claim to the caliphate. Although the treaty made official the Ottoman Empire's loss of the Crimean Khanate, it acknowledged the Ottoman caliph's continuing religious authority over Muslims in Russia.[33] From the 18th century onwards, Ottoman sultans increasingly emphasized their status as caliphs in order to stir Pan-Islamist sentiments among the empire's Muslims in the face of encroaching European imperialism. When World War I broke out, the sultan/caliph issued a call for jihad in 1914 against the Ottoman Empire's Allied enemies, unsuccessfully attempting to incite the subjects of the French, British and Russian empires to revolt. Abdul Hamid II was by far the Ottoman sultan who made the most use of his caliphal position, and was recognized as caliph by many Muslim heads of state, even as far away as Sumatra.[34] He had his claim to the title inserted into the 1876 Constitution (Article 4).[35]
c1 2 : Tughras were used by 35 out of 36 Ottoman sultans, starting with Orhan in the 14th century, whose tughra has been found on two different documents. No tughra bearing the name of Osman I, the founder of the empire, has ever been discovered,[36] although a coin with the inscription "Osman bin Ertuğrul" has been identified.[20] Abdulmejid II, the last Ottoman Caliph, also lacked a tughra of his own, since he did not serve as head of state (that position being held by Mustafa Kemal, President of the newly founded Republic of Turkey) but as a religious and royal figurehead.
d^ : The Ottoman Interregnum, also known as the Ottoman Triumvirate (Turkish: Fetret Devri), was a period of chaos in the Ottoman Empire which lasted from 1402 to 1413. It started following the defeat and capture of Bayezid I by the Turco-Mongol warlord Tamerlane at the Battle of Ankara, which was fought on 20 July 1402. Bayezid's sons fought each other for over a decade, until Mehmed I emerged as the undisputed victor in 1413.[37]
e^ : The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire was a gradual process which started with the abolition of the sultanate and ended with that of the caliphate 16 months later. The sultanate was formally abolished on 1 November 1922. Sultan Mehmed VI fled to Malta on 17 November aboard the British warship Malaya. This event marked the end of the Ottoman Dynasty, not of the Ottoman State nor of the Ottoman Caliphate. On 19 November, the Grand National Assembly (TBMM) elected Mehmed VI's cousin Abdulmejid II, the then crown prince, as caliph.[38] The official end of the Ottoman State was declared through the Treaty of Lausanne (24 July 1923), which recognized the new "Ankara government," and not the old Istanbul-based Ottoman government, as representing the rightful owner and successor state. The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed by the TBMM on 29 October 1923, with Mustafa Kemal as its first President.[39] Although Abdulmejid II was a figurehead lacking any political power, he remained in his position of Caliph until the office of the Caliphate was abolished by the TBMM on 3 March 1924.[35] Mehmed VI later tried unsuccessfully to reinstall himself as caliph in the Hejaz.[40]

References

  1. ↑ Stavrides 2001, p. 21
  2. ↑ Kafadar 1995, p. 122. "That they hailed from the Kayı branch of the Oğuz confederacy seems to be a creative "rediscovery" in the genealogical concoction of the fifteenth century. It is missing not only in Ahmedi but also, and more importantly, in the Yahşi Fakih-Aşıkpaşazade narrative, which gives its own version of an elaborate genealogical family tree going back to Noah. If there was a particularly significant claim to Kayı lineage, it is hard to imagine that Yahşi Fakih would not have heard of it."
    Lowry 2003, p. 78. "Based on these charters, all of which were drawn up between 1324 and 1360 (almost one hundred fifty years prior to the emergence of the Ottoman dynastic myth identifying them as members of the Kayı branch of the Oguz federation of Turkish tribes), we may posit that..."
    Lindner 1983, p. 10. "In fact, no matter how one were to try, the sources simply do not allow the recovery of a family tree linking the antecedents of Osman to the Kayı of the Oğuz tribe. Without a proven genealogy, or even without evidence of sufficient care to produce a single genealogy to be presented to all the court chroniclers, there obviously could be no tribe; thus, the tribe was not a factor in early Ottoman history."
  3. ↑ Glazer 1996, "War of Independence"
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Strauss 2010, pp. 21–51.
  5. ↑ Miller, William (1908). The Latins in the Levant: A History of Frankish Greece (1204–1566). London: John Murray. OCLC 563022439.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Findley 2005, p. 115
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Glazer 1996, "Ottoman Institutions"
  8. ↑ Toynbee 1974, pp. 22–23
  9. ↑ Stavrides 2001, p. 20
  10. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 93
  11. ↑ d'Osman Han 2001, "Ottoman Padishah Succession"
  12. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 90
  13. ↑ Peirce, Leslie. "The sultanate of women". Channel 4. Archived from the original on 2007-12-03. Retrieved 2009-04-18.
  14. ↑ Glazer 1996, "External Threats and Internal Transformations"
  15. ↑ "Last heir to Ottoman throne passes away at 90". Daily Sabah. 19 January 2021.
  16. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 91
  17. ↑ Quataert 2005, p. 92
  18. ↑ Karateke 2005, pp. 37–54
  19. ↑ Finkel 2007, p. 33.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Kafadar 1995, pp. 60, 122.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 Lowry 2003, p. 153.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Jorga 2009, p. 314.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 von Hammer, pp. 58–60.
  24. ↑ Prof. Yaşar Yüce-Prof. Ali Sevim: Türkiye tarihi Cilt II, AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, İstanbul, 1991 pp 74–75
  25. ↑ Kafadar 1995, p. xix
  26. ↑ Turkish Language Association, (1960), Belleten, p. 467 (in Turkish)
  27. ↑ Ágoston, Gábor (2009). "Süleyman I". In Ágoston, Gábor; Masters, Bruce (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire.
  28. ↑ Aşiroğlu 1992, p. 13
  29. ↑ Aşiroğlu 1992, p. 17
  30. ↑ Aşiroğlu 1992, p. 14
  31. ↑ Peirce 1993, pp. 158–159
  32. ↑ M'Gregor, J. (July 1854). "The Race, Religions, and Government of the Ottoman Empire". The Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Science, and Art. Vol. 32. New York: Leavitt, Trow, & Co. p. 376. OCLC 6298914. Retrieved 2009-04-25.
  33. ↑ Glassé 2003, pp. 349–351.
  34. ↑ Quataert 2005, pp. 83–85
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Toprak 1981, pp. 44–45
  36. ↑ Mensiz, Ercan. "About Tugra". Tugra.org. Archived from the original on 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
  37. ↑ Sugar 1993, pp. 23–27
  38. ↑ Aşiroğlu 1992, p. 54
  39. ↑ Glazer 1996, "Table A. Chronology of Major Kemalist Reforms"
  40. ↑ Steffen, Dirk (2005). "Mehmed VI, Sultan". In Tucker, Spencer (ed.). World War I: Encyclopedia. Volume. Vol. III: M–R. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 779. ISBN 978-1-85109-420-2. OCLC 162287003. Retrieved 2009-05-02.

Bibliography

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