Secular state

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A secular state is an idea pertaining to secularity, whereby a state is or purports to be officially neutral in matters of religion, supporting neither religion nor irreligion.[1] A secular state claims to treat all its citizens equally regardless of religion, and claims to avoid preferential treatment for a citizen based on their religious beliefs, affiliation or lack of either over those with other profiles.[2] Although secular states have no state religion, the absence of an established state religion does not mean that a state is completely secular or egalitarian. For example, some states that describe themselves as secular have religious references in their national anthems and flags, laws that benefit one religion or another, or are members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and of the International Religious Freedom or Belief Alliance.

Origin and practice

Secularity can be established at a state's creation (e.g., the Soviet Union, the United States) or by it later secularizing (e.g., France or Nepal). Movements for laïcité in France and separation of church and state in the United States have defined modern concepts of secularism, the United States of America being the first explicitly secular government in history. Historically, the process of secularisation typically involves granting religious freedom, disestablishing state religions, stopping public funds being used for religion, freeing the legal system from religious control, freeing up the education system, tolerating citizens who change religion or abstain from religion, and allowing political leaders to come to power regardless of their religious beliefs.[3] In France, Italy, and Spain, for example, official holidays for the public administration tend to be Christian feast days. Any private school in France that contracts with Éducation nationale means its teachers are salaried by the state—most of the Catholic schools are in this situation and, because of history, they are the majority; however, any other religious or non-religious schools also contract this way.[4] In some European states where secularism confronts monoculturalist philanthropy, some of the main Christian denominations and sects of other religions depend on the state for some of the financial resources for their religious charities.[5] It is common in corporate law and charity law to prohibit organized religion from using those funds to organize religious worship in a separate place of worship or for conversion; the religious body itself must provide the religious content, educated clergy and laypersons to exercise its own functions and may choose to devote part of their time to the separate charities. To that effect, some of those charities establish secular organizations that manage part of or all of the donations from the main religious bodies. Many states that are nowadays secular in practice may have legal vestiges of an earlier established religion. Secularism also has various guises that may coincide with some degree of official religiosity. In the United Kingdom, the head of state is still required to take the Coronation Oath enacted in 1688, swearing to maintain the Protestant Reformed religion and to preserve the established Church of England.[6] The UK also maintains seats in the House of Lords for 26 senior clergymen of the Church of England, known as the Lords Spiritual.[7] In Canada the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms affords secular freedoms of conscience and religion, thought, belief, opinion and expression, including communication, assembly and association yet the Charter's preamble maintains the concept of "the supremacy of God" which would appear to disadvantage those who hold nontheistic or polytheistic beliefs, including Atheism and Buddhism.[8][9] Italy has been a secular state since the enactment of the Constitution in 1948 (stressed by a Constitutional court's decision in 1989),[10] but still recognizes a special status for the Catholic Church. The reverse progression can also occur, however; a state can go from being secular to being a religious state, as in the case of Iran where the secularized Imperial State of Iran was replaced by an Islamic Republic. Nonetheless, the last 250 years has seen a trend towards secularism.[11][12]

List of secular states by continent

See also: Constitutional references to God

This is the list of countries that are explicitly described as secular in their constitutions or other official state documents.

Africa

Americas

Asia

Europe

Oceania

Transcontinental countries

Formerly secular states

Ambiguous countries

  • File:Flag of Bangladesh.svg Bangladesh
    • There is constitutional ambiguity whether Bangladesh is a secular country or an Islamic country. In 2010, the high court of Bangladesh reinstated secularism as a part of the Bangladesh constitution after terming the 1977 constitutional amendment done by then Bangladesh President Ziaur Rahman as illegal.[171] Political leaders and experts have expressed uncertainty if Bangladesh is a secular state or an Islamic state.[172]
  • File:Flag of Malaysia.svg Malaysia
    • In Article 3 of the Constitution of Malaysia, Islam is stated as the official religion of the country: "Islam is the religion of the Federation; but other religions may be practiced in peace and harmony in any part of the Federation." In 1956, the Alliance party submitted a memorandum to the Reid Commission, which was responsible for drafting the Malayan constitution. The memorandum quoted: "The religion of Malaya shall be Islam. The observance of this principle shall not impose any disability on non-Muslim nationals professing and practicing their own religion and shall not imply that the state is not a secular state."[173] The full text of the Memorandum was inserted into paragraph 169 of the Commission Report.[174] This suggestion was later carried forward in the Federation of Malaya Constitutional Proposals 1957 (White Paper), specifically quoted in paragraph 57: "There has been included in the proposed Federal Constitution a declaration that Islam is the religion of the Federation. This will in no way affect the present position of the Federation as a secular State...."[175] The Cobbold Commission also made another similar quote in 1962: "....we are agreed that Islam should be the national religion for the Federation. We are satisfied that the proposal in no way jeopardises freedom of religion in the Federation, which in effect would be secular."[176] In December 1987, the Lord President of the Supreme Court, Salleh Abas described Malaysia as governed by "secular law" in a court ruling.[177]

See also

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Look up secular in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 State with limited recognition.[106]
  2. ↑ Section 116 of the Constitution of Australia provides, "the Commonwealth shall not make any law for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion, and no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the Commonwealth.[148] However, the states retain the power to pass religiously discriminatory laws.[149]

References

  1. ↑ Madeley, John T. S.; Enyedi, Zsolt (2003). Church and State in Contemporary Europe: The Chimera of Neutrality. Psychology Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-7146-5394-5.
  2. ↑ "What is Secularism?". www.secularism.org.uk. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
  3. ↑ Jean Baubérot The secular principle Archived 22 February 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  4. ↑ Teese, Richard (1986). "Private Schools in France: Evolution of a System". Comparative Education Review. 30 (2): 247–259. doi:10.1086/446591. JSTOR 1188531. S2CID 144698211.
  5. ↑ Twinch, Emily. "Religious charities: Faith, funding and the state". Article dated 22 June 2009. Third Sector – a UK Charity Periodical. Archived from the original on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 3 June 2012.
  6. ↑ "Coronation Oath". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  7. ↑ "How members are appointed". UK Parliament. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  8. ↑ Hogg, Peter W. Canada Act 1982 Annotated. Toronto, Canada: The Carswell Company Limited, 1982.
  9. ↑ Paul Russell, "The supremacy of God" does not belong in the Constitution": The Globe & Mail, June 11, 1999
  10. ↑ Articles 3, 7, 8, 19, 20 of the Constitution of Italy; Constitutional Court's Decision n. 203/1989
  11. ↑ "Harris Interactive: Resource Not Found". Archived from the original on 23 July 2013. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  12. ↑ "A Portrait of "Generation Next"". Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. 9 January 2007. Archived from the original on 24 May 2008. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  13. ↑ "ICL - Angola Constitution". Retrieved 18 March 2015., Article 8: "The Republic of Angola shall be a secular State..."
  14. ↑ "Article 2 of Constitution".: "The Republic of Benin shall be one - indivisible, secular, and democratic."
  15. ↑ Leaders say Botswana is a secular state Archived 10 February 2005 at the Wayback Machine
  16. ↑ "Article 31 of Constitution". Archived from the original on 9 October 2006.: "Burkina Faso is a democratic, unitary and secular state."
  17. ↑ Article 4 of Constitution Archived 7 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine: "Le Burundi est une République unitaire, indépendante et souveraine, laïque et démocratique."
  18. ↑ "Preamble of Constitution" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 December 2017. Retrieved 1 March 2007.: "... the State shall be secular."
  19. ↑ Article 24 of the Central African Republic's Constitution of 2016, constituteproject.org: "The Central African Republic is a State of law, unitary, sovereign, indivisible, secular and democratic."
  20. ↑ "Article 1 of Constitution". Archived from the original on 9 October 2006.: "Chad is a sovereign, independent, secular, social, and indivisible ..."
  21. ↑ "Comoros 2018 Constitution - Constitute".
  22. ↑ "Côte d'Ivoire's Constitution of 2000" (PDF)., Article 30: "The Republic of Côte d’Ivoire is one and indivisible, secular, democratic and social."
  23. ↑ "Constitution de la République démocratique du Congo". Retrieved 18 March 2015., article 1er: "République Démocratique du Congo est, dans ses frontières du 30 juin 1960, un État de droit, indépendant, souverain, uni et indivisible, social, démocratique et laïc."
  24. ↑ "ICL - Congo-Brazzaville - Constitution". Retrieved 18 March 2015., Article 1: "The Republic of the Congo is a sovereign and independent State, decentralized, indivisible, secular, democratic, and social."
  25. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Equatorial Guinea". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  26. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Eritrea". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  27. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Eswatini". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  28. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Ethiopia". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  29. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Gabon". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  30. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Gambia". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  31. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Ghana". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  32. ↑ Article 1 of Constitution Archived 13 September 2004 at the Wayback Machine: "La Guinée est une République unitaire, indivisible, laïque, démocratique et sociale."
  33. ↑ Article 1 of Constitution Archived 5 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine: "Guinea-Bissau is a sovereign, democratic, secular and unitary republic."
  34. ↑ "The Constitution of Kenya" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 December 2013. Retrieved 14 March 2022.
  35. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Lesotho". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  36. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Liberia". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  37. ↑ "Madagascar's Constitution of 2010" (PDF)., Article 1: "The Malagasy People constitute a nation organized as a sovereign, unitary, republican and secular State."
  38. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Malawi". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  39. ↑ Constitution Archived 12 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Article 25: "Mali is an independent, sovereign, indivisible, democratic, secular, social Republic."
  40. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Mozambique". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  41. ↑ "ICL - Namibia - Constitution". Retrieved 18 March 2015., Article 1: "The Republic of Namibia is hereby established as a sovereign, secular, democratic and unitary State ..."
  42. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Niger". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  43. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Nigeria". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  44. ↑ Article 4 of the Rwanda's Constitution of 2003 with Amendments through 2015, constituteproject.org, Article 4: "The Rwandan State is an independent, sovereign, democratic, social and secular Republic."
  45. ↑ Article 154 of the Sao Tome and Principe's Constitution of 1975 with Amendments through 2003, constituteproject.org, "The following may not be the subject of a revision to the Constitution: [...] b. The secular status of the State;"
  46. ↑ Article 1 of the Senegal's Constitution of 2001 with Amendments through 2016, constituteproject.org, "The Republic of Senegal is secular, democratic, and social."
  47. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Sierra Leone". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  48. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: South Africa". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  49. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: South Sudan". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  50. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Sudan". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  51. ↑ Article 3 of the Tanzania (United Republic of)'s Constitution of 1977 with Amendments through 2005, constituteproject.org, "The United Republic is a democratic, secular and socialist state which adheres to multi-party democracy"
  52. ↑ Article 1 of the Togo's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2007, constituteproject.org, "The Togolese Republic is a State of law, secular, democratic and social."
  53. ↑ "Why Tunisia abandoning Islam as a state religion?". GR.
  54. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Uganda". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  55. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Zimbabwe". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  56. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Antigua and Barbuda". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  57. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Argentina". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  58. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Bahamas". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  59. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Barbados". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  60. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Belize". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  61. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Bolivia". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  62. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Brazil". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  63. ↑
  64. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Chile". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  65. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Colombia". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  66. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Cuba". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  67. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Dominica". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  68. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Dominican Republic". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  69. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Ecuador". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  70. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: El Salvador". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  71. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Grenada". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  72. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Guatemala". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  73. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Guyana". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  74. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Haiti". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  75. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Honduras". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  76. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Jamaica". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  77. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Mexico". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  78. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Nicaragua". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  79. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Paraguay". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  80. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Panama". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  81. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Peru". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  82. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Saint Kitts and Nevis". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  83. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Saint Lucia". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  84. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Saint Vincent and the Grenadines". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  85. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Suriname". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  86. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Trinidad and Tobago". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  87. ↑ "Religion and the US Constitution: The First Amendment". Cornell Law School. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
  88. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Uruguay". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  89. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Venezuela". United States Department of State. Retrieved 5 March 2023.
  90. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: China". United States Department of State. Retrieved 24 October 2023.
  91. ↑ "The Constitution (Amendment)". Archived from the original on 28 March 2015., "We, The People of India having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all its..."
  92. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Indonesia". United States Department of State. Retrieved 1 September 2023.
  93. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Japan". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  94. ↑ "2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kazakhstan". United States Department of State. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
  95. ↑ Article 1 of Constitution Archived 4 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Article 1: "The Kyrghyz Republic (Kyrghyzstan) shall be a sovereign unitary democratic republic created on the basis of a legal secular state."
  96. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Laos". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  97. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Lebanon". United States Department of State. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
  98. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Mongolia". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  99. ↑ Dodd 2003, p. 571, The rough guide to Nepal: "After 2005, the Marxist-Leninist government of reunified Nepal declared the state atheist while theoretically allowing people the right to practice their religion under the constitution."
  100. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: North Korea". United States Department of State. Retrieved 24 October 2023.
  101. ↑ "Article II Section 6 of the Constitution of the Philippines". Archived from the original on 5 January 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2021., "The separation of Church and State shall be inviolable."
  102. ↑ See Declaration of Religious Harmony, which explicitly states the secular nature of society
  103. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: South Korea". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  104. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Syria". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  105. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Taiwan". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  106. ↑ "Introduction: Secular State and Pious Muslims", Secular State and Religious Society, Palgrave Macmillan, 2011, doi:10.1057/9781137010643.0003, ISBN 9781137010643, retrieved 11 April 2022
  107. ↑ "Tajikistan's Constitution of 1994 with Amendments through 2003" (PDF)., Article 1: "The Republic of Tajikistan is a sovereign, democratic, law-governed, secular, and unitary State."
  108. ↑ Preamble to the Constitution, "The elaboration and adoption of the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor is the culmination of the secular resistance of the Timorese People ..."
  109. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Thailand". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  110. ↑ "Constitution of Turkmenistan". Archived from the original on 14 April 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015., Article 1: "Turkmenistan is a democratic secular state ..."
  111. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Uzbekistan". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  112. ↑ Dodd 2003, p. 571, The rough guide to Vietnam: "After 1975, the Marxist-Leninist government of reunified Vietnam declared the state atheist while theoretically allowing people the right to practice their religion under the constitution."
  113. ↑ "ICL - Albania - Constitution". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  114. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom:Andorra". United States Department of State. 12 May 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
  115. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Armenia". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  116. ↑ "ICL - Austria Constitution". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  117. ↑ Nielsen, Jørgen; Akgönül, Samim; Alibašić, Ahmet; Racius, Egdunas (19 September 2013). Yearbook of Muslims in Europe. BRILL. ISBN 9789004255869 – via Google Books.
  118. ↑ In Belgium, Article 20 of the Constitution provides: No one can be obliged to contribute in any way whatsoever to the acts and ceremonies of religion, nor to observe the days of rest. "ICL - Belgium - Constitution". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  119. ↑ "United States Department of State". United States Department of State. 12 May 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
  120. ↑ "National Assembly of the Republic of Bulgaria - Constitution". Archived from the original on 10 November 2010. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  121. ↑ "The consolidated text of the Constitution of the Republic of Croatia as of 15 January 2014" (PDF). Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  122. ↑ Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms Archived 30 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  123. ↑ "ICL - Estonia - Constitution". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  124. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Finland". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  125. ↑ "ICL - France Constitution". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  126. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Germany". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  127. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Greece". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  128. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Hungary". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  129. ↑ Fifth Amendment of the Constitution Act, 1972
  130. ↑ Articles 3, 7, 8, 19, 20 of Constitution; Constitutional Court's Decision n. 203/1989
  131. ↑ Naamat, Talia; Porat, Dina; Osin, Nina (19 July 2012). Legislating for Equality: A Multinational Collection of Non-Discrimination Norms. Volume I: Europe. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-9004226128 – via Google Books.
  132. ↑ "ICL - Latvia - Constitution". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  133. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Lithuania". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  134. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Moldova". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  135. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Netherlands". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  136. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Norway". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  137. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Poland". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  138. ↑ "Constitution". Retrieved 30 November 2020.
  139. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Romania". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  140. ↑ Article 11 of the Constitution Archived 16 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  141. ↑ "Article 1 of Constitution" (PDF).
  142. ↑ "Constitution". Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  143. ↑ "Article 16 of Constitution" (PDF). Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  144. ↑ The Swedish head of state must according to the Swedish Act of Succession adhere to the Augsburg Confession
  145. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Switzerland". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  146. ↑ "Constitution" (PDF). constituteproject.org. Retrieved 4 October 2020., article 35: "The Church and religious organisations in Ukraine are separated from the State, and the school - from the Church."
  147. ↑ Barker, Renae (9 October 2024). "Is Australia a secular country? It depends what you mean". The Conversation. Retrieved 3 November 2024.
  148. ↑ "ICL - Australia Constitution". Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  149. ↑ Puls, Joshua (1998). "The Wall of Separation: Section 116, the First Amendment and Constitutional Religious Guarantees" (PDF). Federal Law Review: 160.
  150. ↑ Article 4 of the 2013 Constitution of Fiji explicitly provides that Fiji is a secular state. It guarantees religious liberty, while stating, "religious belief is personal", and, "religion and the State are separate." Constitution of the Republic of Fiji Archived 6 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine, 2013
  151. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kiribati". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  152. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Marshall Islands". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  153. ↑ Section 2 of Article IV of the Micronesian constitution provides, "no law may be passed respecting an establishment of religion or impairing the free exercise of religion, except that assistance may be provided to parochial schools for non-religious purposes." "Constitution of the Federated States of Micronesia".
  154. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Nauru". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  155. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: New Zealand". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  156. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Palau". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  157. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Papua New Guinea". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  158. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Solomon Islands". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  159. ↑ "2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Vanuatu". United States Department of State. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  160. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Azerbaijan". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  161. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Cyprus". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  162. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Georgia". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  163. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kazakhstan". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  164. ↑ "Northern Cyprus Constitution" (PDF). Retrieved 29 January 2022.
  165. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Russia". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  166. ↑ "2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Turkey". United States Department of State. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  167. ↑ Nair, N.; Kugelman, M.; Omrani, B. (2021). Ghosts From the Past?: Assessing Recent Developments in Religious Freedom in South Asia. Taylor & Francis. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-000-42873-5. Retrieved 15 September 2023.
  168. ↑ Gurcan, M. (2016). What Went Wrong in Afghanistan?: Understanding Counter-insurgency Efforts in Tribalized Rural and Muslim Environments. Wolverhampton Military Studies. Helion Limited. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-911096-84-9. Retrieved 15 September 2023.
  169. ↑ "Americanchronicle.com". Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
  170. ↑ "Samoa Officially Becomes a Christian State - The Diplomat". 16 June 2017. Archived from the original on 16 June 2017.
  171. ↑ "Bangladesh's court restores 'secularism' in Constitution". 29 July 2010. Archived from the original on 16 October 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023.
  172. ↑ "Bangladesh's Ambiguity on Religion Has Been Expensive for the Country". 7 October 2023. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023.
  173. ↑ Tan Sri Datuk Ahmad Ibrahim, Our Constitution and Islamic Faith, p. 8, 25 August 1987, New Straits Times
  174. ↑ Islam's status in our secular charter, Richard Y.W. Yeoh, Director, Institute of Research for Social Advancement, 20 July 2006, The Sun, Letters (Used by permission)
  175. ↑ Federation of Malaya Constitutional Proposals Kuala Lumpur: Government Printer 1957–Articles 53-61 Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine (PDF document) hosted by Centre for Public Policy Studies Malaysia, retrieved 8 February 2013
  176. ↑ The birth of Malaysia: A reprint of the Report of the Commission of Enquiry, North Borneo and Sarawak, 1962 (Cobbold report) and the Report of the Inter-governmental Committee, (1962–I.G.C. report), p. 58
  177. ↑ Wan Azhar Wan Ahmad, Historical legal perspective, 17 March 2009, The Star (Malaysia)

Bibliography

  • Temperman, Jeroen, State Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law: Towards a Right to Religiously Neutral Governance, BRILL, 2010, ISBN 9004181482
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